Business Data Processing

I. Introduction Meaning and purpose of Data processing - Source documents data input data Manipulation - Output of information - data storage -Files and Records - file creation - File access - File manipulation and maintenance - File generation - sequential and Direct file organization Data processing Elements, data entry, data processing and computer applications. Computer application to functional areas- accounting, inventory control, marketing.

Syllabus

2.Meaning and purpose of windows - menus - Dialog Boxes - File Management under Windows, features of word processing under Windows - Microsoft Word - File Menu Using Letter wizard for producing business letters -Entering, selecting, inserting, viewing text - Normal view - Page view - Point view - Zooming the view - character and paragraph formating - Printing a document. 3. Business data analysis using excel spread sheet spreadsheet overview - formatting worksheet Data - Relative and absolute Referencing working with Formula working with Functions - Creating and using Macros - Data Management through worksheets - analysis through charts/graphs - Setting print Styles Printing worksheets and charts/Graphs. Mini Project

Data

Data The word data is derived from Latin language. It is plural of Datum (But Data is usually used as a singular term.) Datum (singular) Data (plural). Data is any collection of facts of figures. The data is the raw material to be processed by a computer. Example Names of students, marks obtained in the examination, designation of employees, addresses, quantity, rate, sales figures or anything that is input to the computer is data. Even pictures, photographs, drawings, charts and maps can be treated as data. Computer processes the data and produces the output or result

Types of Data
Mainly Data is divided into two types: 1. Numeric Data 2. Character Data 1. Numeric Data The data which is represented in the form of numbers is known as Numeric Data. This includes 0-9 digits, a decimal point (.), +, /, sign and the letters E or D. 2. Character Data Character data falls into two groups. i. String Data ii. Graphical Data String Data String data consists of the sequence of characters. Characters may be English alphabets, numbers or space. The space, which separates two words, is also a character. The string data is further divided into two types. a. Alphabetic Data b. Alphanumeric Data Graphical Data It is possible that pictures, charts and maps can be treated as data. The scanner is normally used to enter this type of data. The common use of this data is found in the National Identity Card.

Information
A collection of data which conveys some meaningful idea is information. It may provide answers to questions like who, which, when, why, what, and how. or The raw input is data and it has no significance when it exists in that form. When data is collated or organized into something meaningful, it gains significance. This meaningful organization is information or Observations and recordings are done to obtain data, while analysis is done to obtain information

Data Processing
Data processing: Any operation or set of operations performed upon data, whether or not by automatic means, such as collection, recording, organization, storage, adaptation or alteration to convert it into useful information.

Data Processing Cycle

Once data is collected, it is processed to convert it into useful information. The data is processed again and again until the accurate result is achieved. This is called data processing cycle. The data processing is very important activity and involves very careful planning. Usually, data processing activity involves three basic activities. 1. Input 2. Processing 3. Output

Data Processing Cycle Step-1

1. Input

It is the process through which collected data is transformed into a form that computer can understand. It is very important step because correct output result totally depends on the input data. In input step, following activities can be performed. i) Verification The collected data is verified to determine whether it is correct as required. For example, the collected data of all B.Sc. students that appeared in final examination of the university is verified. If errors occur in collected data, data is corrected or it is collected again. ii) Coding The verified data is coded or converted into machine readable form so that it can be processed through computer. iii) Storing The data is stored on the secondary storage into a file. The stored data on the storage media will be given to the program as input for processing.

Data Processing Cycle Step-2

2.Processing The term processing denotes the actual data manipulation techniques such as classifying, sorting, calculating, summarizing, comparing, etc. that convert data into information. i) Classification The data is classified into different groups and subgroups, so that each group or subgroup of data can be handled separately. ii) Storing The data is arranged into an order so that it can be accessed very quickly as and when required. iii) Calculations The arithmetic operations are performed on the numeric data to get the required results. For example, total marks of each student are calculated. iv) Summarizing The data is processed to represent it in a summarized form. ft means that the summary of data is prepared for top management. For example, the summary of the data of student is prepared to show the percentage of pass and fail student examination etc.

Data Processing Cycle Step-3

3. Output
After completing the processing step, output is generated. The main purpose of data processing is to get the required result. Mostly, the output is stored on the storage media for later user. In output step, following activities can be performed. i) Retrieval Output stored on the storage media can be retrieved at any time. For example, result of students is prepared and stored on the disk. This result can be retrieved when required for different purposes. ii) Conversion The generated output can be converted into different forms. For example, it can be represented into graphical form. iii) Communication The generated output is sent to different places. For example, weather forecast is prepared and. sent to different agencies and newspapers etc. where it is required.

Types of Data Processing

1. Manual Data Processing:
This method of data processing involves human intervention. The manual process of data entry implies many opportunities for errors, such as delays in data capture, as every single data field has to be keyed in manually, a high amount of operator misprints or typos, high labor costs from the amount of manual labor required. Manual processing also implies higher labor expenses in regards to spending for equipment and supplies, rent, etc.

Types of Data Processing

EDP
EDP (electronic data processing), an infrequently used term for what is today usually called "IS" (information services or systems) or "MIS" (management information services or systems), is the processing of data by a computer and its programs in an environment involving electronic communication. EDP evolved from "DP" (data processing), a term that was created when most computing input was physically put into the computer in punched card form or in ATM cards form and output as punched cards or paper reports.

Types of Data Processing

3.Real time processing In a real time processing, there is a continual input, process and output of data. Data has to be processed in a small stipulated time period (real time), otherwise it will create problems for the system. For example, when a bank customer withdraws a sum of money from his or her account it is vital that the transaction be processed and the account balance updated as soon as possible, allowing both the bank and customer to keep track of funds.

Types of Data Processing

4.Batch processing In a batch processing group of transactions collected over a period of time is collected, entered, processed and then the batch results are produced. Batch processing requires seperate programs for input, process and output. It is an efficient way of processing high volume of data. For example: Payroll system, Examination system and billing system.

Computer Processing Operations

A computer can perform only the following four operations which enable computers to carry out the various data processing activities we have just discussed. (a) Input/Output operations A computer can accept data (input) from and supply processed data (output) to a wide range of input/output devices. These devices such as keyboards, display screens, and printers make human-machine communication possible.

Computer Processing Operations

(b) Calculation and text manipulation Operations Computer circuits perform calculations on numbers. They are also capable of manipulating numerics and other symbols used in text with equal efficiency.

Computer Processing Operations

(c) Logic/Comparison Operations
A computer also possesses the ability to perform logical operations. For example, if we compare two items represented by the symbols A and B, there are only three possible outcomes. A is less than B (A<B); A is equal to B (A=B): or A is greater than B (A>B). A computer can perform such comparisons and the, depending on the result, follow a predetermined path to complete its work. This ability to compare is an important property of computers.

Computer Processing Operations

(d) Storage and Retrieval Operations Both data and program instructions are stored internally in a computer. Once they are stored in the internal memory, they can be called up quickly or retrieved, for further use.

Information Storage and Retrieval

Database Package
A computer program that allows you to easily store, organise and retrieve information. Enables you to:
define data to be stored define how it is to be stored and kept up to date define ways in which data may be retrieved and presented. enter or update data obtain answers to questions about data

Database
a complete set of data used for a particular purpose.

Field name

Form View
Field Record

Database

Database

Field name

List View
Record

Field

Record all the data about a single entity (person, thing) a set of related fields Field one particular piece of data about any entity Field name The heading given for a particular piece of data Key Field a field whose contents are unique to a particular record can be used to uniquely identify a particular record eg student number Data type type of data allowed in a given field eg. text, numeric, date etc Validation data being entered into a field may be restricted by type or specific values.

Some Terms

File Management

24

File Management
File management system consists of system utility programs that run as privileged applications Input to applications is by means of a file Output is saved in a file for long-term storage

25

File System Properties

Long-term existence Sharable between processes Structured

26

File Operations
Create Delete Open Close Read Write

27

Terms Used with Files

Field
Basic element of data Contains a single value Characterized by its length and data type

Record
Collection of related fields Treated as a unit
Example: employee record
28

Terms Used with Files

File
Collection of similar records Treated as a single entity Have file names May restrict access

Database
Collection of related data Relationships exist among elements
29

Typical Operations
Retrieve_All Retrieve_One Retrieve_Next Retrieve_Previous Insert_One Delete_One Update_One Retrieve_Few
30

File Management Systems

The way a user of application may access files Programmer does not need to develop file management software

31

Objectives for a File Management System

Meet the data management needs and requirements of the user Guarantee that the data in the file are valid Optimize performance Provide I/O support for a variety of storage device types

32

Objectives for a File Management System

Minimize or eliminate the potential for lost or destroyed data Provide a standardized set of I/O interface routines Provide I/O support for multiple users

33

Minimal Set of Requirements

Each user should be able to create, delete, read, write and modify files Each user may have controlled access to other users files Each user may control what type of accesses are allowed to the users files Each user should be able to restructure the users files in a form appropriate to the problem
34

Minimal Set of Requirements

Each user should be able to move data between files Each user should be able to back up and recover the users files in case of damage Each user should be able to access the users files by using symbolic names

35

36

Device Drivers
Lowest level Communicates directly with peripheral devices Responsible for starting I/O operations on a device Processes the completion of an I/O request

37

Basic File System

Physical I/O Deals with exchanging blocks of data Concerned with the placement of blocks Concerned with buffering blocks in main memory

38

Basic I/O Supervisor

Responsible for file I/O initiation and termination Control structures are maintained Concerned with selection of the device on which file I/O is to be performed Concerned with scheduling access to optimize performance Part of the operating system
39

Logical I/O
Enables users and applications to access records Provides general-purpose record I/O capability Maintains basic data about file

40

Access Method
Reflect different file structures Different ways to access and process data

41

42

File Management Functions

Identify and locate a selected file Use a directory to describe the location of all files plus their attributes On a shared system describe user access control Blocking for access to files Allocate files to free blocks Manage free storage for available blocks
43

Criteria for File Organization

Short access time
Needed when accessing a single record Not needed for batch mode

Ease of update
File on CD-ROM will not be updated, so this is not a concern

44

Criteria for File Organization

Economy of storage
Should be minimum redundancy in the data Redundancy can be used to speed access such as an index

Simple maintenance Reliability

45

File Organization
The Pile
Data are collected in the order they arrive Purpose is to accumulate a mass of data and save it Records may have different fields No structure Record access is by exhaustive search

46

Pile

47

File Organization
The Sequential File
Fixed format used for records Records are the same length All fields the same (order and length) Field names and lengths are attributes of the file One field is the key filed
Uniquely identifies the record Records are stored in key sequence

48

File Organization
The Sequential File
New records are placed in a log file or transaction file Batch update is performed to merge the log file with the master file

49

Sequential File

50

File Organization
Indexed Sequential File
Index provides a lookup capability to quickly reach the vicinity of the desired record
Contains key field and a pointer to the main file Indexed is searched to find highest key value that is equal to or precedes the desired key value Search continues in the main file at the location indicated by the pointer

51

File Organization
Comparison of sequential and indexed sequential
Example: a file contains 1 million records On average 50,000 accesses are required to find a record in a sequential file If an index contains 1000 entries, it will take on average 500 accesses to find the key, followed by 500 accesses in the main file. Now on average it is 1000 accesses
52

File Organization
Indexed Sequential File
New records are added to an overflow file Record in main file that precedes it is updated to contain a pointer to the new record The overflow is merged with the main file during a batch update Multiple indexes for the same key field can be set up to increase efficiency

53

Indexed Sequential File

54

File Organization
Indexed File
Uses multiple indexes for different key fields May contain an exhaustive index that contains one entry for every record in the main file May contain a partial index

55

Indexed File

56

File Organization
The Direct or Hashed File
Directly access a block at a known address Key field required for each record

57

58

File Directories
Contains information about files
Attributes Location Ownership

Directory itself is a file owned by the operating system Provides mapping between file names and the files themselves
59

Simple Structure for a Directory

List of entries, one for each file Sequential file with the name of the file serving as the key Provides no help in organizing the files Forces user to be careful not to use the same name for two different files

60

61

62

63

Two-level Scheme for a Directory

One directory for each user and a master directory Master directory contains entry for each user
Provides address and access control information

Each user directory is a simple list of files for that user Still provides no help in structuring collections of files

64

Hierarchical, or Tree-Structured Directory

Master directory with user directories underneath it Each user directory may have subdirectories and files as entries

65

66

67

Hierarchical, or Tree-Structured Directory

Files can be located by following a path from the root, or master, directory down various branches
This is the pathname for the file

Can have several files with the same file name as long as they have unique path names

68

Hierarchical, or Tree-Structured Directory

Current directory is the working directory Files are referenced relative to the working directory

69

File Sharing
In multiuser system, allow files to be shared among users Two issues
Access rights Management of simultaneous access

70

Access Rights
None
User may not know of the existence of the file User is not allowed to read the user directory that includes the file

Knowledge
User can only determine that the file exists and who its owner is

71

Access Rights
Execution
The user can load and execute a program but cannot copy it

Reading
The user can read the file for any purpose, including copying and execution

Appending
The user can add data to the file but cannot modify or delete any of the files contents
72

Access Rights
Updating
The user can modify, deleted, and add to the files data. This includes creating the file, rewriting it, and removing all or part of the data

Changing protection
User can change access rights granted to other users

Deletion
User can delete the file
73

Access Rights
Owners
Has all rights previously listed May grant rights to others using the following classes of users
Specific user User groups All for public files

74

Simultaneous Access
User may lock entire file when it is to be updated User may lock the individual records during the update Mutual exclusion and deadlock are issues for shared access

75

Fixed Blocking

76

Variable Blocking: Spanned

77

Variable Blocking Unspanned

78

Secondary Storage Management

Space must be allocated to files Must keep track of the space available for allocation

79

Preallocation
Need the maximum size for the file at the time of creation Difficult to reliably estimate the maximum potential size of the file Tend to overestimated file size so as not to run out of space

80

Methods of File Allocation

Contiguous allocation
Single set of blocks is allocated to a file at the time of creation Only a single entry in the file allocation table
Starting block and length of the file

External fragmentation will occur

Need to perform compaction

81

82

83

Methods of File Allocation

Chained allocation
Allocation on basis of individual block Each block contains a pointer to the next block in the chain Only single entry in the file allocation table
Starting block and length of file

No external fragmentation Best for sequential files No accommodation of the principle of locality

84

85

86

Methods of File Allocation

Indexed allocation
File allocation table contains a separate one-level index for each file The index has one entry for each portion allocated to the file The file allocation table contains block number for the index

87

88

89

UNIX File Management

Types of files
Regular, or ordinary Directory Special Named pipes Links Symbolic links

90

Inodes
Index node Control structure that contains key information for a particular file

91

92

93

94

Linux Virtual File System

Uniform file system interface to user processes Represents any conceivable file systems general feature and behavior Assumes files are objects that share basic properties regardless of the target file system

95

96

97

Primary Objects in VFS

Superblock object
Represents a specific mounted file system

Inode object
Represents a specific file

Dentry object
Represents a specific directory entry

File object
Represents an open file associated with a process
98

Windows File System

Key features of NTFS
Recoverability Security Large disks and large files Multiple data streams General indexing facility

99

NTFS Volume and File Structure

Sector
The smallest physical storage unit on the disk

Cluster
One or more contiguous sectors

Volume
Logical partition on a disk

100

101