Outline of Discussion:

I. Types of Movements II. Axial Skeleton A. Skull B. Vertebral column C. Thoracic cage or rib cage

 A joints structure relates to the movements that occur at that joint. All the movements are described relative to the anatomic position.

 The simplest of all the types of movement. These movements occur in plane joints between two flat or nearly flat surfaces where the surfaces slide or glide over each other. These joints often give only slight movement, such as between carpal bones.

 Are those in which one part of a linear structure, such as the body as a whole or a limb, is bent relative to another part of the structure, thereby changing the angle between the two parts. The most common angular movements are flexion and extension and abduction and adduction.

- To bend - Is movement of a body part anterior to the coronal plane, or in the anterior direction - Except flexion of the knee that moves the leg in a posterior direction

- To straighten - Is movement of a body part posterior to the coronal plane, or in the posterior direction - Except extension of the knee that moves the leg in a anterior direction

Flexion and extension of (a) the shoulder, (b) the neck

Flexion and extension of (c) the trunk

- Movement of the foot toward the plantar surface(sole of the foot) - Example: when standing on the toes

- Movement of the foot toward the shin - Example: when walking on the heels

Plantar Flexion and Dorsiflexion

- Movement away from the median or midsagittal plane Example: outward movement of jumping jacks

- Movement toward the median plane Example: bringing the legs back together

Circular movements involve the rotation of a structure around an axis or movement of the structure in an arc.

- Turning of a structure around its long axis - Example: shaking the head no - rotation of the head, the humerus, or the entire body

Medial rotation of the humerus with the forearm flexed brings the hand toward the body.

Rotation of the humerus so that the hand moves away from the body is lateral rotation.

Pronation is rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces down in relation to the anatomical position.

- Elbow flexed at a 90-degree angle and rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces up - Supination is rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly in relation to the anatomical position.

- Occurs at freely movable joints such as the shoulder. - The arm moves so that it describes a cone with the shoulder joint at the apex - Circumduction is a combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction - It occurs at freely movable joints, such as the shoulder

Special movements are those movements unique to only one or two joints; they do not fit neatly into one of the other categories.

- Elevation moves a structure superiorly Example: closing the mouth involves elevation of the mandible

- Depression moves a structure inferiorly Example: opening the mouth involves depression of the mandible

- Movement in which a structure glides anteriorly - Example: mandible

- The structure glides posteriorly - Retraction moves the structure back to the anatomical position or even more posteriorly.

- Movement of a structure to one side or the other - Example: moving the mandible from side to side

Moving the mandible to either the right or left of the midline, such as in grinding the teeth or chewing.

Medial excursion returns the mandible to the neutral position.

- Movement unique to the thumb and little finger - Example: tips of the thumb and little finger are brought toward each other across the palm of the hand and thumb can also oppose the other digits.

Reposition is the movement returning the thumb and little finger to the neutral, anatomical position.

Turning the foot so that the plantar surface (bottom of the foot) faces laterally

Inversion consists of turning the ankle so that the plantar surface of the foot faces medially, toward the opposite foot.

Forms the upright axis of the body It protects the brain, the spinal cord, and the vital organs housed within the thorax. Divided into: I. Skull II. Vertebral column III. Thoracic cage or rib cage

 Or cranium (krane-um)

Functions:
Protects the brain Supports the organs of vision, hearing, smell, and taste Provides a foundation for the structures that take air, food, and water into the body. The exterior and interior of the skull have ridges, lines, processes, and plates which are important for the attachment of muscles or for articulations between the bones of the skull.

Has 22 bones divided into two groups: those of the braincase and those of the face Has four views
Lateral View Frontal View Interior of the Cranial Cavity Base of Skull Seen from Below

1. Lateral View

2. Frontal View

2. Frontal View

3. Interior of the Cranial Cavity

Base of skull seen from below

-there are three pairs of auditory ossicles or tiny bones in each middle ear, with a total of six bones which function in hearing. - They are pairs of malleus, incus and stapes

It is not a part of the adult skull. The hyoid bone has no direct bony attachment to the skull. Instead, muscles and ligaments attach it to the skull, so the hyoid floats in the superior aspect of the neck just below the mandible. The hyoid bone provides an attachment point for some tongue muscles, and it is an attachment point for important neck muscles that elevate the larynx during speech or swallowing.

-central axis of the skeleton -extends from the base of the skull to slightly past the end of the pelvis -usually consists of 26 individual bones grouped into 5 regions: 7 cervical vertebrae or C1-C7 12 thoracic vertebrae or T1-12 5 lumbar vertebrae or L1-L5 1 sacral bone or S 1 coccygeal bone or CO -the adult vertebral column has four major curvatures. Cervical region curves anteriorly Thoracic region curves posteriorly Lumbar region curves anteriorly Sacral bone curves posteriorly Coccygeal bone curves posteriorly

Supports the weight of the head and trunk Protects the spinal cord Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord Provides a site for muscle attachment Permits movement of the head and trunk

-consists of a body, an arch, and various processes Body -the weight-bearing portion of each vertebra Intervertebral disks -separates the vertebral bodies -formed by dense fibrous connective tissue Vertebral arch -surrounds a large opening called the vertebral foramen -each consists of two pedicles and two laminae Vertebral foramina -form the vertebral canal

 Vertebral canal -where spinal cord is located -protects the spinal cord from injury Pedicles extends from the body to the transverse process of each vertebra

Laminae -extend from the transverse processes to the spinous processes

Transverse process -extends laterally from each side of the arch, between the pedicle and lamina, and a single spinous process -provides attachment sites for muscles that move the vertebral column Spinous process -projects dorsally from where the two laminae meet -can be seen and felt as a series of lumps down the midline of the back -provides attachment sites for muscles that move the vertebral column Invertebral foramina -where spinal nerves exit the spinal cord formed by notches in the pedicles of adjacent vertebrae Articular process -each vertebra has superior and inferior articular processes where the vertebrae articulate with each other -each articular process has a smooth little face called an articular facet.

A. Cervical Vertebrae Have very small bodies, except for the atlas which has no body Each of the transverse process has a transverse foramen through which the vertebral arteries pass toward the brain Several have partly split spinous processes
1. Atlas -First cervical vertebra because it holds up the head, as Atlas in classical mythology held up the world. - Its movement between the occipital bone is responsible for a yes motion of the head -allows a slight tilting of the head from side to side 2. Axis -the second cervical vertebra -it is called axis because a considerable amount of rotation occurs at this vertebra Example: shaking the head no -this rotation occurs around a process called the dens - Dens (denz)-extends superiorly from the axis

B. Thoracic Vertebrae -possess long, thin, spinous process that is directed inferiorly -also have extra articular facets on their lateral surfaces that articulate with the ribs

C. Lumbar Vertebrae -have large, thick bodies and heavy, rectangular transverse and spinous processes. -the superior articular facets face medially and the inferior articular facets face laterally, and tends to lock adjacent lumbar vertebrae together, giving the lumbar part of the vertebral column more strength -articular facets in other regions of the vertebral column have a more open position, allowing for more rotational movement but less stability than in the lumbar region.

Sacrum fused five sacral vertebrae

Median Sacral Crest Formed by the spinous processes of the first four sacral vertebra

Sacral hiatus The spinous process of the fifth vertebra that does not form Found at the inferior end of the sacrum which is often the site of caudal anesthetic injections given just before childbirth
Sacral promontory -bulged anterior edge of the body of the first sacral vertebra - A landmark that can be felt during vaginal examination -used as a reference point during measurement to determine if the pelvic openings are large enough to allow for normal vaginal delivery of a baby

 Coccyx Or tailbone Usually consists of four more-or-less fused vertebrae Do not have the typical structure of most other vertebrae Consist of extremely reduced vertebral bodies, without the foramina or processes Usually fused into a single bone

- Protects the vital organs within the thorax - Prevents the collapse of the thorax during respiration - Consists of the thoracic vertebrae, the ribs with their associated cartilages, and the sternum

Ribs and Costal Cartilages -Ribs have 12 pairs that can be divided into true and false ribs.
True ribs -the superior seven pairs -attach directly to the sternum by means of costal cartilages

 False ribs -the inferior five pairs -do not attach directly to the sternum Three pairs, ribs 8 through 10, attach to the sternum by a common cartilage Two pairs, ribs 11 and 12, called the floating ribs, do not attach to the sternum

 Sternum (breastbone) - Is divided into three parts: the manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid - Resembles a sword, with the manubrium forming the handle, the body forming the blade, and the xiphoid process forming the tip.

Jungular notch -A depression found at the superior end of the sternum located between the ends of the clavicles where they articulate with the sternum
Sternal angle -A slight elevation that can be felt at the junction of the manubrium and the body of the sternum. -This junction is an important landmark because it identifies the location of the second rib. This identification allows the ribs to be counted and, for example, allows location of the apex of the heart, which is located between the fifth and sixth ribs.

 Xiphoid process -Another important landmark of the sternum -During cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), it is very important to place the hands over the body of the sternum rather than over the xiphoid process. If the hands are placed over the xiphoid process, the pressure applied during CPR could break the xiphoid process and drive it into an underlying abdominal organ such as the liver, causing internal bleeding.

 Cartilage (karti-lij) is composed of cartilage cells, or chondrocytes (kondro-stz), located in spaces called lacunae (la-koone) within an extensive and relatively rigid matrix. Next to bone, cartilage is the firmest structure in the body.