WHAT IS METAL FORMING?

Forming is a fabrication process for solid substances by controlled plastic deformation

in order to obtain alterations of:
- the shape,
- the material properties and/or
-the surface properties.

Metal Forming is a process in which a simple metallic geometry is transformed into a
complex one through plastic deformation. Tools or dies impart pressure on the material
to transfer the desired geometry through the tool/material interface.

Classification of Metal forming
Classification by State of Stress
Classification by Type of Raw Material
Classification by Methods of Induction of Forces into the Work-Piece
Classification by Forming Temperature
Classification by State of Stress
Compression Forming
Rolling, forging, extrusion, Indenting,
etc.





Tension Forming
Bulge Forming, Stretch Forming etc.

Tension-Compression Forming
Drawing, Deep Drawing, Collar
Forming, Upset Bulging. Etc.

Bend Forming
Bending with Linear Tool Movement,
Bending with Rotating Tool Movement

Shear Forming
Shear Displacement, Blanking
Sheet-metal Forming
The raw material consists of flat parts of
constant thickness. Sheet metalworking
processes are forming and cutting operations
performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils.
Bulk Deformation
Bulk deformation processes are generally
characterized by significant deformations and
massive shape changes, and the surface area-
to-volume of the work is relatively small.
Classification by Type of Raw Material
Classification based on the type of force
applied on to the work piece


Direct-compression-type processes
The applied force is normal to the direction
of the metal flow in compression, i.e.,
forging and rolling processes.

Indirect-compression processes
The primary forces are either tensile or
compressive, with indirect compressive
forces developed by the reaction of the work
piece. The metal flow is therefore under the
combined stress state, i.e., extrusion,
wiredrawing, tube drawing.


COLD WORKING is metal forming performed at room temperature. During cold
work, the metal experiences an increased number of dislocations and
entanglement of these dislocations, causing strain hardening.
Advantages: better accuracy, better surface finish, high strength and hardness
of the part, no heating is required.
Disadvantages: higher forces and power, limitations to the amount of forming,
additional annealing for some material is required, and some material are not
capable of cold working. Heavier and more powerful equipment and stronger
tooling are required, Less ductility is available, Metal surfaces must be clean
and scale-free.
Classification by Forming Temperature
WARM WORKING is metal forming at temperatures above the room
temperature but below the re-crystallization temperature. The forces required
to deform metal in the warm working regime are higher than during hot working.
The final finish and dimensional tolerances are better than hot working but not
nearly as good as a cold working process
Advantages: lower forces and power, more complex part shapes, no annealing
is required.
Compared to hot forming, the lower temperatures of warm working produce
less scaling and decarburization, and enable production of products with better
dimensional precision and smoother surfaces. Finish machining is reduced and
less material is converted into scrap.
Compared to cold forming, warm forming offers the advantages of reduced
loads on the tooling and equipment, increased material ductility, and a possible
reduction in the number of anneals due to a reduction in the amount of strain
hardening.
Disadvantages: some investment in furnaces is needed.
Classification by Forming Temperature (Contd.)
HOT WORKING involves deformation of preheated material at temperatures
above the re-crystallization temperature. Hot working occurs at temperatures of
51% or above the melting temperature of the metal. At elevated temperatures,
the metal has decreased strength, hence the forces needed for deformation are
reduced.
Advantages: big amount of forming is possible, lower forces and power are
required, forming of materials with low ductility, no work hardening and
therefore, no additional
annealing is required.
Disadvantages: lower accuracy and surface finish, higher production cost, and
shorter tool life.
Classification by Forming Temperature (contd.)
MATERIAL BEHAVIOR IN METAL FORMING
Behaviour of metals during forming can be obtained from the stress
strain curve. A typical stressstrain curve for most metals is divided
into an elastic region and a plastic region
Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary interest because
material is plastically deformed
In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the flow curve
(Flow curve based on true stress and true strain):

where K = strength coefficient;
and n = strain hardening exponent.
n
Kc o =
Review Topics
Stress-strain curve (F-L curve)
Strain Hardening
% elongation and % reduction of area.
Engineering vs. true stress and strain.
Offset method for determining the yield strength
FLOW STRESS
Flow stress is defined as the instantaneous value of stress required to continue
deforming the material to keep the metal flowing.
For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when deformed due to
strain hardening.
Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming the
material
where Y
f
= flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a
function of strain
n
f
Y Kc =
AVERAGE FLOW STRESS
The average flow stress is the average value of stress over the stress-strain curve
from the beginning of strain to the final (maximum) value that occurs during
deformation.
The average flow stress is determined by integrating the flow curve equation
between zero and the final strain value defining the range of interest


where = average flow stress; and c = maximum strain during deformation
process

_
max
1
n
f
K
Y
n
c
=
+
_
f
Y
Classification based on the type of force
applied on to the work piece


Direct-compression-type processes
The applied force is normal to the direction
of the metal flow in compression, i.e.,
forging and rolling processes.

Indirect-compression processes
The primary forces are frequently tensile,
with indirect compressive forces developed
by the reaction of the work piece. The metal
flow is therefore under the combined stress
state, i.e., extrusion, wiredrawing, tube
drawing.


FORGING: Production of parts with a set of dies; some
finishing operations usually necessary; similar parts can
be made by casting and powder-metallurgy techniques;
usually performed at elevated temperatures; dies and
equipment costs are high; moderate to high labour
costs; moderate to high operator skill.
CLASSIFICATION OF BULK
DEFORMATION PROCESSES
ROLLING: (1) Flat: Production of flat plate, sheet, and
foil at high speeds, and with good surface finish,
especially in cold rolling; requires very high capital
investment; low to moderate labour cost.
(2) Shape: Production of various structural shapes, such
as I-beams and rails, at high speeds;
includes thread and ring rolling; requires
shaped rolls and expensive equipment; low
to moderate labour cost; moderate operator skill.
EXTRUSION: Production of long lengths of solid or hollow products with constant cross-sections,
usually performed at elevated temperatures; product is then cut to desired lengths; can be
competitive with roll forming; cold extrusion has similarities to forging and is used to make discrete
products; moderate to high die and equipment cost; low to
moderate labour cost; low to moderate operator skill.
Drawing: Production of long rod, wire, and tubing, with round or various cross-sections; smaller
cross-sections than extrusions; good surface finish; low to moderate die, equipment and labour
costs; low to moderate operator skill.
Swaging Radial forging of discrete or long parts with
various internal and external shapes; generally carried
out at room temperature; low to moderate operator skill.
Open Die Forging: Deformation operation reduces
height and increases diameter of work.
Common names include upsetting or upset forging
Open Die Forging: Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of
work. Common names include upsetting or upset forging
Open-Die Forging with No Friction
If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then homogeneous deformation
occurs, so that radial flow is uniform throughout workpiece height and true strain is
given by:

1
ln
o
h
h
=
Open-Die Forging with Friction
Friction between work and die surfaces constrains lateral flow of work, resulting in
barreling effect.
In hot open-die forging, effect is even more pronounced due to heat transfer at and
near die surfaces, which cools the metal and increases its resistance to deformation.
Swaging: swaging is accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially
inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
Swaging is used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock.
Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of internal diameter of tubular
parts
EXTRUSION AND DRAWING PROCESSES
A billet of diameter D0 is extruded through a die of diameter D1. Except for the very first
and last material to be extruded, this is a steady-state operation. The volume of metal
exiting the die, must equal the material entering the die, , so the total
external work Wa is
0 0
A l A
1 1
A l A
( ) ( ) 2 sin . 2 cos .
cos cos
x x x x x x x x
dx dx
d h dh b p b b b h o o u t u o
u u
+ + + =
2 tan 2
x x x x x x x x x x
h dh h d p dx dx h o o o u t o + + + =
Above Equation can be simplified by neglecting second order differentials as:
2 tan 2
x x x x
x x x x x
x x
h h d
p dx dx h
dh dh
o o
o u t o + + + =
2 tan 2
x x x x x x x x x x
h dh h d p dx dx h o o o u t o + + + =
Moulding is the most common method for forming plastic
polymers. The several moulding techniques used include
compression, transfer, blow, injection, and extrusion moulding.
FORMING TECHNIQUES FOR POLYMERS
Injection Molding.
Compression Molding.
Extrusion Molding.
Blow Molding.
Rotational Molding.
Injection Moulding
Compression Moulding
Extrusion Moulding
Blow Moulding
Blow Moulding
The mould is held between the heated platens of the hydraulic press;
A prepared quality of moulding compound is placed in the mould, usually by
hand, and the mould placed in the press;
The press closes with sufficient pressure to prevent or minimize flash at the
mould part line;
The compound softens and flows to shape; the chemical cure then occurs
as the internal mould temperature becomes high enough;
If necessary, cooling takes place, although for the vast majority of
thermosets this is not needed;
The press is opened and the moulding removed.
Process description
Compression Moulding
ROTATIONAL MOLDING
A predetermined amount of
plastic, powder or liquid form, is
deposited in one half of a mold.
The mold is closed.
The mold is rotated biaxially
inside an oven.
The plastics melts and forms a
coating over the inside surface of
the mold.
The mold is removed from the
oven and cooled.
The part is removed from the
mold.
Rotational molding process consists of six steps
ROTATIONAL MOLDING MACHINES
Rock and roll machine
Vertical wheel machine
Shuttle machine
Turret machine
ROTATIONAL MOLDING
Advantages
Molds are relatively inexpensive.
Rotational molding machines are much less
expensive than other type of plastic
processing equipment.
Different parts can be molded at the same
time.
Very large hollow parts can be made.
Parts are stress free.
Very little scrap is produced
ROTATIONAL MOLDING EXAMPLES
ROTATIONAL MOLDING EXAMPLES
Transfer moulding is a development of compression moulding in which a
reservoir of moulding compound is located in the mould and, upon closure, is
transferred
t th iti arunners to the cavities.
Thus we see some relationship with injection moulding.
The process is illustrated in Figure 11.3.
Transfer moulding is used to give many small parts more easily;
- to reduce the risk of damage or movement of thin or
indicate mould parts or inserts;
- because it is claimed to be faster due to better heat
transfer through the runners. .
Process description
Transfer Moulding