Structured Query Language

(SQL)

SQL allow user to access data in relational

database management systems, such as
Oracle, Access, SQL Server, Foxpro, Infomix
and others, by allowing users to describe the
data the user wishes to see.
SQL statements are issued for the
purpose of:

 Data definition - Defining tables and

structures in the database .

 Data manipulation - Inserting new data,

Updating existing data, Deleting existing
data, and Querying the Database ( Retrieving
existing data from the database).
 The following is list of SQL statements that
can be issued against an Oracle database
schema. These commands are available to
any user of the Oracle database.
 DDL Statements

 CREATE - Create new database objects such as tables or

views

 DROP - Drop a database object such as a table, view

or index

 ALTER - Change an existing table, view or index definition

 GRANT - Allow another user to access database objects

such as tables or views (For Data Control )

 REVOKE - Disallow a user access to database objects such as

tables and views (For Data Control )
 DML Statements
 SELECT - Retrieve data from a database table

 INSERT - Insert new data into a database table

 UPDATE - Change the values of some data items in a

database table

 DELETE - Delete rows from a database table

 TRUNCATE - Delete all rows from a database table (can

not be rolled back)

 ROLLBACK - Undo any recent changes to the database

(DML - Transactional)

 COMMIT - Make all recent changes permanent (DML -

transactional)
Creating Tables

Tables are defined with the CREATE TABLE

command.This command creates an empty
table, a table with no rows.
 Basically defines a table name as
describing a
set of named columns.
 Defines the data types and sizes of the
columns.
 Each table must have at least one
column.
The main SQL data
types
Type description Oracle SQL
variable-length char.
VARCHAR2(l)
string
fixed-length char. string CHAR(l)
number NUMBER(p,s)
date DATE
 More Data Types …

dec(p, s)
decimal(p, s)
numeric(p, s)
long Variable-length strings (Up to 2 gigabytes
)
bfile File locators that point to a read-only
binary object outside of the database (Up
to 4 gigabytes )
clob LOB locators that point to a large
character object within the database (Up
to 4 gigabytes)
Creating a table

Eg:- 1) CREATE TABLE Employee

( Emp_No Char(4),
Name Varchar(15),
Address Varchar(15),
DOB Date,
Salary Number(9,2) );
Creating table with constrains
eg:- 2) CREATE TABLE Employee
( Emp_No Char(4) Primary Key,
Name Varchar(15) Not Null,
Address Varchar(15),
DOB Date,
Salary Number(9,2) Check (Salary >
3500) );

Name field Always Salary

Primary Key Cannot be must be >
3500
Altering a Table

Once created, tables can be altered to

accommodate changing needs.
Add new column to the table

Eg:- 1) ALTER TABLE Employee

ADD Sex char(1);

+
Delete a existing column from the
table
2) ALTER TABLE Employee
DROP COLUMN Sex ;
Displaying Table Structure

Eg:- DESCRIBE Employee;

Name Null? Type

--------------- -------------- -------------
EMP_NO NOT NULL CHAR(4)
NAME VARCHAR2(15)
ADDRESS VARCHAR2(15)
DOB DATE
SALARY NUMBER(9,2)
SEX CHAR(1)
Entering Values to a table

SQL provides the key word INSERT to add data to a table.

Eg:- 1) INSERT INTO Employee

VALUES (‘E001’,’Ranjith’,’Matara’,’12-Feb-
76’,7400);
 
 Entering Values to a table

Naming columns for insert

2) INSERT INTO Employee (Emp_No, Name, Salary)

VALUES (‘E001’,’Ranjith’,7400.00);
INSERT INTO Employee
VALUES ('&Emp_No','&Name','&Address','&DOB',&Salary);

Enter value for emp_no : E015

Enter value for name : Thushara
Enter value for address : Gampaha
Enter value for dob : 12-Sep-67
Enter value for salary:
Indexes
An Index is an ordered (alphabetic or numeric) list of
the contents of a column or group of columns in a
table.        
 - Improve the performance of queries.

Eg:- CREATE INDEX EmpIndx ON

Employee(Emp_No);
Retrieving Data

The SELECT command simply instructs the

database to retrieve information from a table.
 
Get full details of a table
Eg:- SELECT *
FROM Employee;
Get data from specified columns

Eg:- SELECT Emp_No, Name, Salary

FROM Employee;
Removing duplicate data
DISTINCT is an argument that provides a way for
you to eliminate duplicate values from your select
clause.

Eg:- SELECT DISTINCT Address

FROM Employee;
Ordering Output by fields

SQL uses the ORDER BY command to allow

you to impose an order on your output.
- Ascending (ASC)
- Descending (DESC)
Eg:- 1) SELECT Emp_No, Name, Salary
FROM Employee
ORDER BY Emp_No DESC;

2) SELECT Emp_No, Name, Salary

FROM Employee

ORDER BY 1 DESC;
Retrieving data using expressions

Eg:- SELECT Name, Salary, Salary*110/100 “New

Salary”
FROM Employee;
Retrieving data which satisfy a
condition.

The WHERE clause of the SELECT command allows you

to define a criteria to determine which rows are selected for
output.
Eg:- SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE Emp_No =’ E002’;
 A condition with logical operator

Eg:- SELECT name, Salary

FROM Employee
WHERE (Salary > 7000) AND (Address = ‘Matara’);
Using Wild Card characters

(%) is used to represent any possible character

(number, letter, or punctuation) or set of
characters.
(-) is used to represent any single Character.
Eg:- SELECT *
FROM Employee
WHERE Name LIKE ‘R%’;
Built-In Functions
SQL supports special built-in functions to perform
operations on a collection of values in a column of a
table. These operations produce a single value as the
result of the query.

COUNT – Number of values in the column.

SUM - Sum of the values in the column.
AVG - Average Sum of the values in the column.
MAX - Maximum value in the column.
MIN - Minimum value in the column.
Eg:- SELECT COUNT(*) “No_Of_Rec”
FROM Employee
WHERE Address = ‘Matara’;

2
Eg:- SELECT MAX(Salary) “MaxSal”
FROM Employee

MaxSal
10000
GROUP BY Clause

SQL produce the key word GROUP BY to use in

SELECT statement to group the result of the
function. When a GROUP BY column is included
in the SELECT statement each column-name in
the SELECT clause must be single valued for each
group in the result.
Eg:- SELECT Address, AVG(Salary) “Average”
FROM Employee
GROUP BY Address; ADDRESS Average
Colombo 4900
Galle 8900
Kalutara 6500
Matara 7966.67
Tangalle 8200
HAVING Clause
SQL provides the clause HAVING to limit the
retrieval only to group which satisfy a condition.
This is similar to the WHERE clause. Expressions
in a having clause must have a single value for each
group.
Eg:- SELECT Address, COUNT(Emp_No) “Number”
FROM Employee
GROUP BY Address
HAVING Address IN (‘Matara’,’Galle’);

ADDRESS Number

Galle 2
Matara 3
Joining Tables

SQL provides a “join” operation, which joins two

or more tables temporarily, in the WHERE
clause of the SELECT statement.

To create a join between tables they must each

contain at least one column with common
values and data types.
Eg:- 1) SELECT customer.*, contract.*
FROM customer, contract
WHERE
customer.cus_no=contract.cus_no;
Eg 2) SELECT A.*, B.*
FROM customer A, contract B
WHERE A.cus_no=B.cus_no;
3) SELECT A.cus_no, A.name, B.item
FROM customer A, contract B
WHERE B.mon_rental > 10000
AND A.cus_no=B.cus_no;