Electromagnetic Radiation

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a self-propagating wave in space with electric and magnetic components. These components oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation, and are in phase with each other. Electromagnetic radiation is classified into types according to the frequency of the wave: these types include, in order of increasing frequency, radio waves, microwaves, terahertz radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. EM radiation carries energy and momentum, which may be imparted when it interacts with matter. The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths

EM Radiation
Electromagnetic wave propagation is described by Maxwells equations, which state that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field and a changing electric field produces a magnetic field. Thus electromagnetic waves are able to self-propagate. In electromagnetism simply any electric charge which accelerates, or any changing magnetic field, produces electromagnetic radiation. The concept of electromagnetic field interaction is not entirely new, since electromagnetic fields form the basis of all antenna theory

Theory of EM
Electromagnetic waves were first predicted by James Clerk Maxwell and subsequently confirmed by Heinrich Hertz. Maxwell derived a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations, revealing the wave-like nature of electric and magnetic fields, and their symmetry. Because the speed of EM waves predicted by the wave equation coincided with the measured speed of light, Maxwell concluded that light itself is an EM wave.

Theory of EM
According to Maxwell's equations, a timevarying electric field generates a magnetic field and vice versa. Therefore, as an oscillating electric field generates an oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic field in turn generates an oscillating electric field, and so on. These oscillating fields together form an electromagnetic wave. The energy in electromagnetic waves is sometimes called radiant energy.

EM waves
A wave consists of successive troughs and crests, and the distance between two adjacent crests or troughs is called the wavelength. Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size, from very long radio waves the size of buildings to very short gamma rays smaller than atom nuclei. Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, according to the equation:
v = f

where v is the speed of the wave (c in a vacuum, or less in other media), f is the frequency and is the wavelength. As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speeds change but their frequencies remain constant.

EM waves an example
If you are standing on a bridge overlooking a calm body of water. If you were to drop an object (which did not float) into the pound, there would be a path of bubbles generated in the same direction (vertical) as the object, but there would also be a circular wave pattern radiating from the point of impact and spreading horizontally across the body of water. Electromagnetic and electrostatic radiation pattern in free space.

Power Density and Inverse Square Law

Power Density is defined as radiated power per unit area. Power density reduced to one-quarter of its value when distance from the source has doubled. Inverse Square Law states that power density is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source. This law applies to all forms of radiation in free space.

Power Density and Inverse Square Law

Where p is the power density at a distance r from an isotropic source. Pt is the transmitted power. An isotropic source is one that radiates uniformly in all directions in space. Inverse Square law applies also when the source is not an isotropic one but for good calculations and clearing concepts we take isotropic source.

Polarization of EM waves
An electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the electric field might be oscillating up and down, while the magnetic field oscillates right and left; but this picture can be rotated with the electric field oscillating right and left and the magnetic field oscillating down and up. This is a different solution that is traveling in the same direction. This arbitrariness in the orientation with respect to propagation direction is known as polarization.

Polarization of EM waves
polarization of the received wave and that the polarization of a transmitted wave is the same as that of the antenna from which it emanated by neglecting any environmental effect.

P = E H
The power density on the surface of an imaginary sphere surrounding the RF source can be expressed as

where d is the diameter of the imaginary sphere, P is the total power at the source, and S is the power density on the surface of the sphere in watts/m2

Types of Polarization

Polarization of wave depends on magnitude and phase relationship between existing E-field components ( Ex and Ey) Linear polarization occurs when Ex and/or Ey are in phase regardless of their relative magnitudes (direction of Linear Polarization wave is the same as Efield). Circular polarization occurs when Ex & Ey are out of phase by 90but both components have equal magnitude. Elliptical polarization occurs when Ex and Ey are out of phase by 90and both components have different magnitudes. Example: use a probe to measure E & H fields of Linear polarized EM wave

Reception and Radiation

The process of reception is exactly the reverse of the process of transmission. Transmitting and receiving antennas are interchangeable and virtually identical regardless of use for reception or transmission. Antennas radiate electromagnetic waves, as a result electron flow in a suitable conductor as this is proved mathematically in the Maxwells Equation.

Velocity of waves
The velocity of propagation for the electromagnetic wave can be calculated as a function of the permittivity and permeability of the medium.

Velocity of waves
The velocity of propagation is equal to the velocity of light in free space divided by the square root of the product of the relative permittivity and permeability. An electromagnetic plane wave traveling in the positive z direction can be described by the following equations:

Refraction Reflection Diffraction

There are several means of electromagnetic wave propagation beyond LOS propagation. The mechanisms of non-LOS propagation vary considerably, Based on the operating frequency. At VHF and UHF frequencies, indirect propagation is often used. Examples of indirect propagation are cell phones, pagers, and some military communications. An LOS may or may not exist for these systems. In the absence of an LOS path, diffraction, refraction, and/or multipath reflections are the dominant propagation modes.

Refraction Reflection Diffraction

Diffraction is a phenomenon of electromagnetic waves bending at the edge of a blockage, resulting in the shadow of the blockage being partially filled-in. Refraction is the bending of electromagnetic waves due to an uneven surface in the medium. Multipath is the effect of reflections from multiple objects in the field of view, which can result in many different copies of the wave arriving at the receiver.

Refraction Reflection Diffraction

Reflection and diffraction around buildings and foliage may provide enough signal strength for meaningful communication to take place. The efficiency of indirect propagation depends upon the amount of margin in the communication link and the strength of the diffracted or reflected signals. The operating frequency has a significant impact on the viability of indirect propagation. HF frequencies can penetrate buildings and heavy foliage quite easily. VHF and UHF can penetrate building and foliage also, but to a lesser extent.

Refraction Reflection Diffraction

At the same time, VHF and UHF will have a greater tendency to diffract around or reflect/scatter off of objects in the path. Above UHF, indirect propagation becomes very inefficient and is seldom used. When the features of the obstruction are large compared to the wavelength, the obstruction will tend to reflect or diffract the wave rather than scatter it.

Scattering
Scattering: Scattering occurs when an electromagnetic wave is incident on a rough or irregular surface. When a wave is scattered, the resulting reflections occur in many different directions. When looked at on a small scale, the surface can often be analyzed as a collection of flat or sharp reflectors. The determination of when a surface is considered rough is usually based on the Rayleigh roughness laws

Absorption
Absorption: Anytime that an electromagnetic wave is present in a material other than free space, there will be some loss of strength with distance due to ohmic losses and this is termed as absorption.

Interference of Electromagnetic waves

Interference occurs when two waves that left one source and travel by different paths arrive at a point. This can be happen in high frequency sky waves propagation and microwave space wave propagation. The interference produced due to microwave antenna is located near the ground, and waves reach after reflection from the ground.

Frequency Bands
The super-high-frequency (SHF) frequencies include 330GHz and use strictly LOS propagation. In this band, very small antennas can be employed,or,more typically,moderately sized directional antennas with high gain. Applications of the SHF band include satellite communications, direct broadcast satellite television, and point-to-point links. Precipitation and gaseous absorption can be an issue in these frequency ranges, particularly near the higher end of the range and at longer distances.

Frequency Bands
The extra-high-frequency (EHF) band covers 30300GHz and is often called millimeter wave. In this region, much greater bandwidths are available. Propagation is strictly LOS, and precipitation and gaseous absorption are a significant issue.

Frequency Bands Available for Microwave/Satellite Communications