IMMUNITY

BY ASHOK K TIWARI

EXTERNAL DEFENSES
Epidermis - provides a physical barrier, periodic shedding removes microbes Mucous membranes and mucus - traps microbes and foreign particles Hair - within the nose filters air containing microbes, dust, pollutants Cilia - lines the upper respiratory tract traps and propels inhaled debris to throat Lacrimal apparatus - produces tears that cleanse the eye Saliva - dilutes the number of microorganisms and washes the teeth and mouth Urine - flush microbes out of the urethra Defecation and vomiting - expel microorganisms.

CHEMICAL FACTORS
1. Skin acidity - inhibit bacterial growth 2. Sebum -unsaturated fatty acids provide a protective film and inhibit growth 3. Lysozyme- found in perspiration, tears, saliva can breakdown the cell wall of certain bacterial 4. Hyaluronic acid - gelatinous substance that slows the spread of noxious agents 5. Gastric Juice - strong acid that destroys ingested microbes and most toxins

DEFENSE AGAINST DISEASE

Physical, chemical and cellular defence that protect the pathogen from entering the body.

IMMUNE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

Scavenge dead, dying body cells Destroy abnormal (cancerous) cells Protect from pathogens & foreign molecules: parasites, bacteria, viruses

EXPLAIN THE TERMS: ANTIGEN, ANTIBODY AND IMMUNE RESPONSE.

Antigen: Any molecule that body recognise as foreign is an Antigen.

Antibody: Different kinds of lymphocytes produce different types of protein, called Antibody.

Immune response: when the body recognise an antigen, it produces an antibody, the response is called immune response.

CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Phagocytes( neutrophils and macrophages) and lymphocytes.

PHAGOCYTES
Produced and stored in the bone marrow. Later released in the blood. They are scavenger( removing dead cells and micro-organism).

STEPS IN IMMUNE DEFENSE

During an immune response, cells detect invader/foreign cells, communicate alarm & recruit immune cells, suppress or destroy invader

Phagocytosis
Macrophages and neutrophils respond to invasion by foreign pathogens, engulf and digest recognized "foreign" cells molecules, remove cellular debris Monocyte - macrophage system free and fixed Macrophages Neutrophils and eosinophils Move by diapedesis move through capillary walls, exhibit chemotaxis

NEUTROPHILS

NEUTROPHILS
A kind of phagocytes 60% of WBC Squeezing out of the walls of the capillary. During infection released in large number.

Short lived.

MACROPHAGES
Larger than neutrophils. Found in the organs( lungs, liver, kidney, spleen and lymph nodes). In blood they are called monocytes, once they are out of blood vessel, they develop into macrophages and selttle in organs. Long lived. Cut the pathogen to display their antigen, that can be recognised by lymphocytes.

PHAGOCYTOSIS
When pathogens invade. Our body. Cells under attack release Histamine. Histamine with toxin, attract neutrophils which destroy pathogens by phagocytosis. After engulfing the pathogen, they are destroyed by lysosome. If antibody are attached to the pathogen, the neutrophils can recognise and engulf the pathogen much faster.

LYMPHOCYTES
Lymphocytes - B and T cells originate in red bone marrow, move to lymphatic tissue from processing sites and continually circulate Primary lymphatic organs - lymphocytes mature into functional cells (red bone marrow B cells and thymus T cells)

There's an easy way to remember where the two types of lymphocytes mature... The B-lymphcytes mature in the Bone! The T-lymphocytes mature in the Thymus! Lymphocytes live in lymphoid organs, but they also patrol the bloodstream looking for trouble...

Lymphocytes are always specific for just ONE antigen. (An antigen is the foreign substance on the surface of an invading organism). When a new invading organism arrives in the body, the correct lymphocyte must be selected, then it must divide to produce lots of identical lymphocytes. This is called CLONAL SELECTION:

Lymphocytes are always specific for just ONE antigen. (An antigen is the foreign substance on the surface of an invading organism). When a new invading organism arrives in the body, the correct lymphocyte must be selected, then it must divide to produce lots of identical lymphocytes. This is called CLONAL SELECTION:

Role of memory cells

Memory cells remain in the body for years so if the same antigen is regonised in the body again, more of the specific lymphocytes will be stimulated. This is the basis of immunological memory. The secondary immune response is larger and faster than the primary immune response.

A pathogen with different types of Antigen on the surface

ANTIGENS
- An antigen is any foreign molecule that is specifically recognized by lymphocytes and elicits a response from them - A lymphocyte actually recognizes and binds to just a small, accessible portion of the antigen called an epitope or antigenic determinant Antigenic determinants - Specific regions of a given antigen recognized by a lymphocyte Antigenic receptors -Surface of lymphocyte that combines with antigenic determinant

B CELLS
Each B cell make one types of Antibody. There are more than 10 million types of B cells. Each type of B cells produce a group of cells by clonning. These cells are called clones. In the clone, antibody is produced that remain attached to the plasma membrane. A part of antibody form protein receptor, which can combine with one type of an antigen.

B CELL IN ACTION
When pathogen invades. The macrophages cut the pathogen and expose the antigen. The B cell, which recognise the antigen, will divide by mitosis to produce Plasma cells ( in millions)( Cannot live long) that produce the antibody at very fast rate. Antibody, combines with Antigen on the Pathogen and destroy it. Other B cells become memory cells, ( live for long time)

If same pathogen enter, it divides to form plasma cell, which produce antibody.

B CELL ANTIBODY PRODUCTION

- B cells develop from stem cells in the bone marrow of adults (liver of fetuses). - After maturation B cells migrate to lymphoid organs (lymph node or spleen).

Clonal Selection: When a B cell encounters an antigen it recognizes, it is stimulated and divides into many clones called plasma cells, which actively secrete antibodies. - Each B cell produces antibodies that will recognize only one antigenic determinant.

ANTIBODY STRUCTURE
- Antibodies or Immunoglobulins (Ig) - Classes: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD - Structure: Variable region - combines with antigenic determinant of antigen Constant region -responsible for activities

Antibodies are immune systemrelated proteins called immunoglobulins. Each antibody consists of four polypeptides two heavy chains and two light chains joined to form a "Y" shaped molecule. The amino acid sequence in the tips of the "Y" varies greatly among different antibodies. This variable region, composed of 110-130 amino acids, give the antibody its specificity for binding antigen. The variable region includes the ends of the light and heavy chains.

Classes of Immunoglobulins IgG Percentage serum antibodies: 80%, location: Blood, lymph, intestine Enhances phagocytosis, neutralizes toxins and viruses, protects fetus and newborn. IgM Percentage serum antibodies: 5-10%, location: Blood, lymph, B cell surface (monomer) First antibodies produced during an infection. Effective against microbes and agglutinating antigens. IgA Percentage serum antibodies: 10-15%, location: Secretions (tears, saliva, intestine, milk), blood and lymph. Localized protection of mucosal surfaces. Provides immunity to infant digestive tract. IgD Percentage serum antibodies: 0.2%, location: B-cell surface, blood, and lymph In serum function is unknown. On B cell surface, initiate immune response IgE Percentage serum antibodies: 0.002%, location: Bound to mast cells and basophils throughout body. Blood. Allergic reactions. Possibly lysis of worms.

Antibody Structure - Antibodies or Immunoglobulins (Ig) - Classes: IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD - Structure: Variable region - combines with antigenic determinant of antigen Constant region -responsible for activities Antibodies (immunoglobulins, Ig) are proteins that recognize specific antigens and bind to them. They are found in extracellular fluids (blood plasma, lymph, mucus, etc.) and the surface of B cells.

DEFENCE
Defense against bacteria, bacterial toxins, and viruses that circulate freely in body fluids, before they enter cells. Also cause certain reactions against transplanted tissue.

Antigenic determinants - specific regions of a given antigen recognized by a lymphocyte Antigenic receptors are found on surface of lymphocyte that combines with antigenic determinant to form AntigenAntibody Complex

CONSEQUENCES OF ANTIBODY BINDING

- Agglutination: Antibodies cause antigens (microbes) to clump together. - Opsonization - Phagocytosis - Activates Complement System/Inflammatory Response - Antigen-Specific Responses
Activate T lymphocytes: direct attack Activate B lymphocytes to become: memory cells: secondary immune response to that antigen, plasma cells that produce more antibodies to attack that antigen

LYMPHOCYTES

Mature T lymphocytes have T receptor on the surface. Get Activated , when get attached to an antigen. Two types of T cells. T helper cell and Killer T cells. T helper cells. When activated they release of hormone( cytokines)- attract macrophages.

Killer T cells: recogonise antigen, attach themselves to the surface of an infected cell, secreate toxin ( hydrogen peroxide) and kills the infected cell along with the pathogen.

IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY:
Primary Response - After initial exposure to antigen, no antibodies are found in serum for several days. A gradual increase number of Abs, first of IgM and then of IgG is observed. Most B cells become plasma cells, but some B cells become long living memory cells. Gradual decline of antibodies follows.
Secondary Response - Subsequent exposure to the same antigen displays a faster/more intense response due to the existence of memory cells, which rapidly produce plasma cells upon antigen stimulation

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE IMMUNITY

A preparation containing antigen material, which may be whole live organism, a dead one , a harmless version, harmless form of toxin, or a preparation of surface antigen. Vaccine can be administered orally or intravenous, or intramuscular.