Chapter 10

Chapter Ten
The Internet
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business Users Approach Seventh Edition
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Discuss the responsibilities of the Internet Protocol (IP) and how IP can be used to create a connection between networks Identify both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses Discuss the responsibilities of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and how it can be used to create a reliable, end-to-end network connection
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition
After reading this chapter, you should be able to (continued):

Identify the relationships between TCP/IP and the protocols ICMP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, NAT, and tunneling protocols Describe the responsibility of the Domain Name System and how it converts a URL into a dotted decimal IP address
After reading this chapter, you should be able to (continued):

Describe the major Internet applications and services Recognize that the Internet is constantly evolving and that IPv6 and Internet2 demonstrate that evolution
Introduction
Todays present Internet is a vast collection of thousands of networks and their attached devices The Internet began as ARPANET during the 1960s One high-speed backbone connected several university, government, and research sites
Backbone was capable of supporting 56 kbps transmission speeds and eventually became financed by the National Science Foundation (NSF)
Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Seventh Edition 5
Introduction (continued)
Internet Protocols
To support the Internet and all its services, many protocols are necessary Some of the protocols that we will look at:
Internet Protocol (IP) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Network Address Translation (NAT)
Internet Protocols (continued)

Recall that the Internet with all its protocols follows the TCP/IP protocol suite (Internet model)
An application, such as e-mail, resides at the highest layer A transport protocol, such as TCP, resides at the transport layer The Internet Protocol (IP) resides at the Internet or network layer A particular media and its framing resides at the network access (or data link) layer
Internet Protocols (continued)
The Internet Protocol (IP)

IP prepares a packet for transmission across the Internet The IP header is encapsulated onto a transport data packet The IP packet is then passed to the next layer where further network information is encapsulated onto it
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The Internet Protocol (IP) (continued)
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The Internet Protocol (IP) (continued)

There are currently two versions of IP:
Version 4, which has been in existence for many years Version 6, which has been available for several years but is only now starting to see a substantial move towards replacing version 4 Lets take a look at both versions
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IPv4
Using IPv4, a router:
Makes routing decisions based on the 32-bit destination address May have to fragment the datagram into smaller datagrams using Fragment Offset May determine that current datagram has been hopping around the network too long and delete it (Time to Live)
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The IPv4 Header/Datagram
Figure 10-4 Format of the IPv4 datagram
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IPv4
Fragmenting an IPv4 datagram is performed by the Offset and More fields. Offset value is in multiples of 8 bytes
Figure 10-5 Division of an IPv4 datagram into three fragments
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IPv4 Addresses
All devices connected to Internet have a 32-bit IP address Think of the IP address as a logical address (possibly temporary), while the 48-bit address on every NIC is the physical, or permanent address Computers, networks and routers use the 32-bit binary address, but a more readable form is the dotted decimal notation
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IPv4 Addresses (continued)

For example, the 32-bit binary address 10000000 10011100 00001110 00000111 translates to 128.156.14.7 in dotted decimal notation
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When IP addresses were originally created, they were called classful addresses
That is, each IP address fell into particular class A particular class address has a unique network address size and a unique host address size There are basically five types of IP addresses: Classes A, B, C, D and E
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When you examine the first decimal value in the dotted decimal notation:
All Class A addresses are in the range 0 - 127 All Class B addresses are in the range 128 - 191 All Class C addresses are in the range 192 223 All Class D addresses are in the range 224 239 All Class E addresses are in the range 240 - 255
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IP subnet masking
Sometimes you have a large number of IP addresses to manage By using subnet masking, you can break the host ID portion of the address into a subnet ID and host ID Example subnet mask 255.255.255.0 applied to a class B address will break the host ID (normally 16 bits) into an 8-bit subnet ID and an 8-bit host ID
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Today, IP addresses are considered classless addresses
With classless addressing, companies (users) do not apply for particular class of addresses
Instead, company will get its IP addresses from an Internet service provider (ISP) Most ISPs have already applied for a large number of IP addresses and are willing to lease those addresses to companies
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Example instead of applying for two Class C addresses, a company could contact an ISP, which would lease 500 IP addresses to the company The addresses are not identified by any class they are simply a contiguous block of IP addresses Classless addressing has led to a much more efficient allocation of the IP address space
A company can lease only as many addresses as it needs
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Classless IPv4 Addresses

An IP address in slash notation has all the info we need about the block of addresses assigned to a user/company For example, one address in a block of addresses is 167.199.170.82/27
27 bits belong to the network ID, and 5 bits belong to the host ID (IPv4 addresses have 32 bits) The network mask has 27 1s followed by 5 0s. In dotted decimal notation that is 255.255.255.224. The number of addresses in the block is 25 = 32
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Classless IPv4 Addresses

To find the first address, AND the address (167.199.170.82) with the network mask (255.255.255.224)
Address: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010 Mask: 11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000 Result: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000 Which in decimal is 167.199.170.64/27
The last address is 31 addresses past the first, or 167.199.170.95/27

IPv6
The next version of the Internet Protocol Main features include:
Simpler header 128-bit IP addresses Priority levels and quality of service parameters No fragmentation
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IPv6 (continued)
Figure 10-6 The fields in the IPv6 header
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IPv6 Addresses
IPv6 addresses are 128-bits in size (2128 is a very large number!) They are also classless addresses, similar to IPv4 addresses Because of their size, a number of conventions have been adopted:
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IPv6 Addresses
Binary addresses are written using the shorthand hexadecimal form:
0110 1010 0011 1110 1011 1010 1110 1111
6A3E : BA91 : 7221 : 0000 : 01FC : 922C : 877B : FFEF
Four hex 0s in a row are truncated as follows:

6A3E : BA91 : 7221 : 0 : 01FC : 922C : 877B : FFEF
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IPv6 Addresses
Longer strings of 0s can be abbreviated further. For example, 6A3E : BA91 : 0 : 0 : 0 : 0 : 877B : FFEF
can be abbreviated as 6A3E : BA91 : : 877B : FFEF
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The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP layer creates connection between sender and receiver using port numbers
The port number identifies a particular application on a particular device (IP address)
TCP can multiplex multiple connections (using port numbers) over a single IP line
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The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) (continued)

The TCP layer can ensure that the receiver is not overrun with data (end-to-end flow control) using the Window field TCP can perform end-to-end error correction
Checksum
TCP allows for the sending of high priority data

Urgent Pointer
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The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) (continued)

Figure 10-7 The fields of the TCP header
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Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

ICMP
Used by routers and nodes Performs error reporting for the Internet Protocol
ICMP reports errors such as invalid IP address, invalid port address, and the packet has hopped too many times
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User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

A transport layer protocol used in place of TCP Where TCP supports a connection-oriented application, UDP is used with connectionless applications UDP also encapsulates a header onto an application packet but the header is much simpler than TCP
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Multiprotocol Label Switching

An additional layer often added above TCP Used to move Internet packets more quickly through routers By using the MPLS label, the router does not have to dig in so deep to retrieve IP address The 20-bit Label field is the key identifier that connects this packet with a particular flow of packets
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Multiprotocol Label Switching
Figure 10-8 Two MPLS headers and their four fields
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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

When an IP packet has traversed the Internet and encounters the destination LAN, how does the packet find the destination workstation? Even though destination workstation may have an IP address, a LAN does not use IP addresses to deliver frames
A LAN uses MAC layer address
ARP translates IP address into MAC layer address so frame can be delivered to proper workstation
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

An IP address can be assigned to a workstation permanently (static assignment) or dynamically
Dynamic IP address assignment is a more efficient use of scarce IP addresses When DHCP client issues an IP request, DHCP server looks in its static table
If no entry exists, server selects an IP address from available pool
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Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) (continued)

The address assigned by DHCP server is temporary
Part of agreement includes specific period of time
If no time period specified, the default is one hour
DHCP clients may negotiate for a renewal before the time period expires
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Network Address Translation (NAT)

NAT lets router represent entire local area network to Internet as single IP address
Thus, all traffic leaving LAN appears as originating from global IP address All traffic coming into this LAN uses this global IP address
This security feature allows a LAN to hide all the workstation IP addresses from the Internet
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Network Address Translation (NAT) (continued)

Since the outside world cannot see into LAN, you do not need to use registered IP addresses on inside LAN We can use the following blocks of addresses for private use:
10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255
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Network Address Translation (NAT) (continued)

When a user on inside sends packet to outside, the NAT interface changes the users inside address to global IP address
This change is stored in a cache
When the response comes back, the NAT looks in cache and switches the addresses back
If not the packet is dropped
Unless NAT has a service table of fixed IP address mappings
This service table allows packets to originate from the outside
Tunneling Protocols and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

The Internet is not normally a secure system If person wants to use Internet to access corporate computer system, how can a secure connection be created?
One possible technique is by creating a virtual private network (VPN)
VPN creates a secure connection through the Internet by using a tunneling protocol
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The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (WWW) immense collection of web pages and other resources that can be downloaded across the Internet and displayed on a workstation via a web browser and is the most popular service on the Internet Basic web pages are created with the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP) is protocol to transfer a web page
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Locating a Document on the Internet

Every document on the Internet has a unique Uniform Resource Locator (URL) All URLs consist of four parts:
Service type Host or domain name Directory or subdirectory information Filename
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Locating a Document on the Internet (continued)
Figure 10-9 The parts of a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) for HTTP (a) and FTP (b)
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Locating a Document on the Internet (continued)

When a user, running a Web browser, enters a URL, how is URL translated into an IP address? Domain Name System (DNS) large, distributed database of URLs and IP addresses
The first operation performed by DNS is to query a local database for URL/IP address information
If local server does not recognize address, the server at next level will be queried Eventually root server for URL/IP addresses will be queried
If root server has answer, results are returned If root server recognizes domain name but not extension in front of domain name, root server will query server at domain names location When domains server returns results, they are passed back through chain of servers (and their caches)
Internet Services
The Internet provides many types of services, including several very common ones:
Electronic mail (e-mail) File transfer protocol (FTP) Remote login (Telnet) VoIP (Voice over IP) Listservs Streaming audio and video Instant Messaging, Tweets, and Blogs
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Electronic Mail (e-mail)

E-mail programs can create, send, receive, and store e-mails, as well as reply to, forward, and attach non-text files Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) is used to send e-mail attachments Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to transmit e-mail messages Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) and Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) are used to hold and later retrieve e-mail messages
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Used to transfer files across the Internet User can upload or download a file The URL for an FTP site begins with ftp:// The three most common ways to access an FTP site are:
Through a browser Using a canned FTP program Issuing FTP commands at a text-based command prompt
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Remote Login (Telnet)

Allows a user to remotely log in to a distant computer site User usually needs a login and password to access a remote computer site User saves money on long-distance telephone charges
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Voice Over IP (VoIP)

The transfer of voice signals using a packetswitched network and the IP protocol Voice over IP (VoIP) can be internal to a company (private VoIP) or can be external using the Internet VoIP consumes many resources and may not always work well, but can be cost-effective in certain situations
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Voice Over IP (continued)

Three basic ways to make a telephone call using VoIP:
PC to PC using sound cards and headsets (or speakers and microphone) PC to telephone (need a gateway to convert IP addresses to telephone numbers) Telephone to telephone (need gateways)
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Three functions necessary to support VoIP:
Voice must be digitized (PCM, 64 kbps, fairly standard) 64 kbps voice must be compressed Once the voice is compressed, the data must be transmitted
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How can we transport compressed voice?
H.323
Created in 1996 by ITU-T Actually, H.323 created for a wide range of applications both audio and video, and not for TCP/IP networks
Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

Created by IETF specifically for supporting the transfer of voice over the Internet
Many feel SIP will surpass H.323


ENUM
A protocol that supports VoIP Converts telephone numbers to fully qualified domain name addresses Example telephone number (312) 555-1212 will be converted to 2.1.2.1.5.5.5.2.1.3.1.e164.arpa
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Listservs
A popular software program used to create and manage Internet mailing lists When an individual sends an e-mail to a listserv, the listserv sends a copy of the message to all listserv members Listservs can be useful business tools for individuals trying to follow a particular area of study
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Streaming Audio and Video

The continuous download of a compressed audio or video file, which can be heard or viewed on the users workstation Real-Time Protocol (RTP) and Real-Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) support streaming audio and video Streaming audio and video consume a large amount of network resources
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Instant Messaging, Tweets, and Blogs

IM allows a user to see if people are currently logged in on the network and to send short messages in real time Consumes less resources than e-mail, and faster Tweets occur when you Twitter. Max 140 character messages Blogs are online web logs that people maintain
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The Internet and Business

E-Commerce the buying and selling of goods and services via the Internet Many agree that e-commerce consists of four major areas:
E-retailing Electronic data interchange (EDI) Micro-marketing Internet security
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Cookies and State Information

A cookie is data created by a Web server that is stored on the hard drive of a users workstation
This state information is used to track a users activity and to predict future needs
Information on previous viewing habits stored in a cookie can also be used by other Web sites to provide customized content Many consider cookies to be an invasion of privacy
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Intranets and Extranets

An intranet is a TCP/IP network inside a company that allow employees to access the companys information resources through an Internet-like interface When an intranet is extended outside the corporate walls to include suppliers, customers, or other external agents, the intranet becomes an extranet
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The Future of the Internet

Various Internet committees are constantly working on new and improved protocols Examples include:
Internet Printing Protocol Internet fax Extensions to FTP Common Name Resolution Protocol WWW Distributed Authoring and Versioning
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Internet2
A new form of the Internet is being developed by a number of businesses and universities Internet2 will support very high-speed data streams Applications might include:
Digital library services Tele-immersion Virtual laboratories
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The Internet In Action: A Company Creates a VPN

A fictitious company wants to allow 3500 of its workers to work from home If all 3500 users used a dial-in service, the telephone costs would be very high
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The Internet In Action: A Company Creates a VPN (continued)
Figure 10-10 CompuCom employees dialing directly into the corporate computing center
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Instead, the company will require each user to access the Internet via their local Internet service provider
This local access will help keep telephone costs low Then, once on Internet, company will provide software to support virtual private networks The virtual private networks will create secure connections from the users homes into the corporate computer system
Figure 10-11 CompuComs employees using a tunnel across the Internet into the corporate computing center
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Summary
To support Internet, many protocols, such as IP, TCP, ICMP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, and NAT, are necessary The Internet Protocol provides a connectionless transfer of data over a wide variety of networks There are currently two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) resides at the transport layer and provides an error-free, end-to-end connection The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) performs error reporting for IP
Summary (continued)
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides a connectionless transport layer protocol in place of TCP The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) translates an IP address into a CSMA/CD MAC address on a LAN The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) allows a network to dynamically assign IP addresses to workstations as they are needed Network Address Translation (NAT) allows a network to replace local IP address with on global-type IP address
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Summary (continued)
Tunneling protocols allow a company to create virtual private network connections into a corporate computing system World Wide Web is vast collection of electronic documents containing text and images that can be accessed by simply clicking link within browsers Web page To locate document on Internet, you usually refer to its Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
Summary (continued)
Internet consists of many commonly used network applications E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services electronically Cookies store state information on users hard drive and provide a way for Web sites to track a users Web-browsing patterns and preferences
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Summary (continued)
Intranet is in-house Internet with Web-like services that are available only to a companys employees or to customers and suppliers through an extranet The Internet continues to evolve with a completely new, higher-speed Internet2
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Chapter 10

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Chapter Ten

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

After reading this chapter, you should be able to (continued):

After reading this chapter, you should be able to (continued):

Internet Protocols (continued)

Internet Protocols (continued)

The Internet Protocol (IP)

The Internet Protocol (IP) (continued)

The Internet Protocol (IP) (continued)

The IPv4 Header/Datagram

Figure 10-4 Format of the IPv4 datagram

IPv4 Addresses (continued)

IPv4 Addresses (continued)

IPv4 Addresses (continued)

IPv4 Addresses (continued)

IPv4 Addresses (continued)

IPv4 Addresses (continued)

IPv4 Addresses (continued)

Classless IPv4 Addresses

Classless IPv4 Addresses

The last address is 31 addresses past the first, or 167.199.170.95/27

Figure 10-6 The fields in the IPv6 header

6A3E : BA91 : 7221 : 0000 : 01FC : 922C : 877B : FFEF

Four hex 0s in a row are truncated as follows:

can be abbreviated as 6A3E : BA91 : : 877B : FFEF

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) (continued)

TCP allows for the sending of high priority data

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) (continued)

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Multiprotocol Label Switching

Multiprotocol Label Switching

Figure 10-8 Two MPLS headers and their four fields

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) (continued)

Network Address Translation (NAT)

Network Address Translation (NAT) (continued)

Network Address Translation (NAT) (continued)

Tunneling Protocols and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

The World Wide Web

Locating a Document on the Internet

Locating a Document on the Internet (continued)

Locating a Document on the Internet (continued)

Electronic Mail (e-mail)

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Remote Login (Telnet)

Voice Over IP (VoIP)

Voice Over IP (continued)

Voice Over IP (continued)

Voice Over IP (continued)

Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

Many feel SIP will surpass H.323

Voice Over IP (continued)

Streaming Audio and Video

Instant Messaging, Tweets, and Blogs

The Internet and Business

Cookies and State Information

Intranets and Extranets

The Future of the Internet

The Internet In Action: A Company Creates a VPN

The Internet In Action: A Company Creates a VPN (continued)

The Internet In Action: A Company Creates a VPN (continued)