Physiological Systems of the Human Body

Functioning of the human body is a coordinated action of various systems.

1) skeletal system 2) circulatory system 3) respiratory system 4) Digestive system 5) excretory system 6) regulatory system 7) reproductive system 8) muscular system

Skeletal system
It is a frame work of the body. Provides mechanical stability for the body to protect the

delicate organs and serves as an anchorage for the muscles in order to make possible through liver action. Also serves as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus and contains the bone marrow in which blood cells are formed. It consists of 206 bones and enclosed by a membrane called periosteum from which a new bone is formed in the healing of fractures. Top-cranium skull Middle-pelvis Bottom-foot bones Articular cartilage (capsule)

Circulatory System
It is a type of Transport system. Helps in supplying the O2 and digested food to

different parts of our body and removing CO2 from the blood. HEART-pump-heart beating Pumping-Pulmonary (to the lungs) and Systematic circulation (to other organs of the body).

Circulatory System
Arteries-blood vessels which carry pure blood from the

heart to various parts Veins-blood vessels through which impure blood returns to the heart Superior vena cava Inferior vena cava Pulmonary veins-carry pure blood from lungs to the heart Pulmonary artery-carry impure blood heart to lungs

Circulatory System

Respiratory System
It is concerned with Breathing and Respiration. NOSE(starting point)-LUNGS(ending point) Alveoli-gas exchange take place Breathing

1) Inspiration 2) Expiration

Respiratory System

Digestive System
Food- pieces and mixed with saliva in the mouth.

Gullet- reaches to stomachwall-grandular cells

secrete HCl, pepsin and mucus. Intestine-small and large Digestive system burns carbohydrates, fats and protiens. Combustion products-CO2,water,urea and N2 substances. Respiratory + Excretory systems Food+O2 Energy + Wastes (CO2)
Metabolic activity

Excretory system
Lungs, Kidneys, Skin and large intestine.
Removes waste products formed during combustion of

the food from our body. Lungs-CO2(volatile). Kidneys-nitrogen breakdown products interms of Urine (non volatile). Sweat glands- water, salt and other products. Liver-via bile remove certain waste.

Regulatory system
Nervous system-for regulation of rapid events Endocrine system- for regulation of slower metabolic

processes. Central Nervous System Brain- cerebrum, cerebellum and the brain stem. Spinal cord- through the back bone and also acts as a communicator b/w various parts and brain. Peripheral Nervous System Sensory (inward path) and Motory nerves (outward path)---communication wires. Neurons Endocrine system Works by using hormones which are carried through circulatory system.

Reproductive system
A fetus develops through repeated cell division by

means of reproductive system. Fertilization in fallopian tube.

Muscular system
Movements of various parts are caused by muscles. 1) voluntary muscles : arm muscles

2) involuntary muscles: food canal

3) cardiac muscles: heart Muscle contraction is regulated via nerves.

A bundle of muscle fibers in a muscle supplied by a

single motor nerve fiber is called a Motor Unit because all the muscle fibers contract simultaneously when the nerve fiber is stimulated. Sensorsmuscles spindles sends the signals to the central nervous system so that feedback and control is obtained.

SOME FACTORS ABOUT

CELL

Basic building block of Human body. 100 Trillion Fluid in character similar cells forms---Tissues, Muscle nerves, blood, bones etc. Two or more tissues of dissimilar physiology forms Heart, Lungs, kidney, Skin, Blood vessels etc. EX: Digestive system-- Mouth, trachea, stomach, intestines, liver, rectum.

SOME FACTORS ABOUT

CELL

The cells of the tissues are held by the product called

Intercellular cement. The fluid which lies inside the cell is known as intracellular fluid. To sustain the cells a fluid called Interstitial or Extra cellular fluid is able to flow to each cell to bring nourishment to it, to remove waste products from it and to respond to electrochemical impulses.

CHRACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS(virus, cell, fish, man)

a) Metabolism: Living organism ingests

substances containing energyliberates energy uses to maintain activities and excrete waste products.
An organism is able to sustain itself for a period of time by

this process.

CHRACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

b) Motility: move on its own with out the assistance

from the outside.

Tasks : warm itself, secure food, avoid threatening

situations.

c) Irritability: ability of an organism to respond to

outside stimulus.
Ex: harmful bacteria influence, temperature or current.

Results in contraction , expansion, discharge, chemical or

physical change.

CHRACTERISTICS OF LIVING ORGANISMS

d) Growth: ability to grow. Ex: size, energy, form, function and chemical structure.
e) Reproducibility: to reproduce ones own kind of

species by repeated cell division.

LIVING

General characteristics of a human cell

1) Nearly Spherical in Shape.
2) diameter 20 3) semi permeable outer membrane with a T=100

4) has inner fluid substance cytoplasm

(organells+inclusions). 5) Inner control unit nucleus filled with nucleoplasm has the nuclear membrane. Nucleus nuleoli contains RNA & DNA.

Average cell structure

Average cell structure

Basic Processes in Cells

a) Diffusion: takes place as a result of difference
combination with a carrier protein.

of concentration of substances inside & outside of the cell.

Transportation is through intermolecular spaces in the membrane or in

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion: 1) Permeability of the membrane, which the cell can regulate. 2) The relative concentration of the substance inside & outside of the cell. 3) Potential inside and outside of the cell. 4) Pressure difference inside & outside of the cell.

 b) Active transport: When a cell moves

molecules or ions uphill against a concentration gradient.
By which the cell substance can cross the cell membrane.

In this a carrier can be used.

By this substances in a lower concentration of liquid are moved in to higher levels of concentration. Creates an balance of charges & energy.

 c) Pinocytosis: carrier is not used.

Certain substances approach & rest on the cell membrane the cell can engulf them & forms some sort of capsule. This capsule then travels through the membrane in to the cytoplasm.

Cell Potential Genesis: Resting state

The concentration of the ions inside and outside the

cell are markedly different. i) In the interstitial (outside) fluid, the concentration of Na+ and Cl- ions are much higher than in the intercellular (inside) fluid. ii) In the intercellular fluid, the concentration of K + ions is much higher than in the interstitial fluid. iii) There is an electrical potential difference between the inside and outside fluids. (In skeletal muscles-90 mv approx)

Resting potential
The membrane of a cell which is a semi permeable

plays an important role in the maintenance of the above differences. When the membrane is not stimulated i.e; in the resting state, it is highly permeable to K+ but only slightly permeable to Na + . Because of its steep concentration gradient, K+ tends to leak out at a high rate. As a result the inside of the cell becomes electrically negative wrto the outside.

Resting voltage
Is depending upon :

a) the relative difference in concentration (chemical

gradient) b) any external sources resulting from the transport of ions across the membrane (electrical gradient)

Resting potential
However an equilibrium is reached when the tendency

for K + to diffuse out is balanced by the electric field that has been set up. At this point, the interior of the cell is about 60 to 90 mv negative relative to the external fluid.

Nernst Relation
This potential, which is referred to later as the

chemical gradient, is given by the Nernst relations : (T = 293K)

Electrical characteristics of the Human Cell

Net Gradient: A chemical gradient is formed due to a difference in

concentration (10 to 1) producing a potential gradient as given by the Nernst relation. An electrical gradient is formed as a result of a potential (90mV)that may exist across the membrane due to some other source.
The net result is that the sodium and potassium currents are equal; the

sodium current balances the potassium current with a resultant current of zero. Since the net current though the membrane is zero, the cells internal potential will not change and will remain at its 90 mV resting level.

Electrical characteristics of the Human Cell

Cell in Resting State or polarized state : In this state potassium ions can pass fairly readily

through the membrane as the membrane offers medium resistance.

This membrane is, however, almost impermeable to

sodium ions and, thus, offers a high resistance to the passage of these ions.
A large net gradient affects the movement of sodium

ions into the cell.

Resting potential

Cell Condition after a Stimulus

When a cell receives a stimulation above a certain

threshold value, this balance is upset and the cell will go through a cycle known as an Action Potential.
The membrane permeability to potassium ions is

unaltered but the permeability to sodium ions is increased thus flows in to the cell.
A much lower resistance is offered to the flow of

sodium ions, thus increasing the sodium ionic current.

 This increased

sodium ionic current causes more positive ions to pass into the cell than are passing out of the cell, causing the internal cell potential to drop from 90 mV in an attempt to achieve sodium current and potassium current balance.

Cell Depolarization
As this potential decreases, the net sodium gradient

across the membrane decreases and the net potassium gradient across the membrane increases, causing the currents to decrease and increase, respectively.
This process continues until current balance is again

obtained, at which time the internal cell potential is + 20 mV.

The cell is then referred to as being in a depolarized

state.

Cell Repolarization
By the time the cell has fully depolarized the

characteristics of the membrane have begun to revert back to their pre-stimulus state.
This causes the sodium ionic current to be

considerably lower than the potassium ionic current ; the internal cell potential thus begins to go negative with the process continuing until the 90 mV resting potential of the cell is once again obtained.

Action Potential from a Cell

Suppose a stimulus is applied to the cell, the output of

the microelectrode would appear as shown below. This waveform is known as the Cell action potential. Bioelectric currents are due to positive and negative ion movement within a conductive fluid. As these ions possess finite mass and encounter resistance to movement within the fluid their speeds are limited. The cell action potential, thus, shows a finite rise time and fall time. Time scale : 1 ms for nerve cells 150-300 ms in heart muscles.

Sodium Potassium Pump Phenomenon

The ionic concentration gradient across the cell

membrane is maintained by virtue of metabolic energy expended by the cell in Pumping ions against the ionic gradient formed by the differing ionic concentration between the inside and outside of the cell.
This action has been referred to as the Sodium

potassium pump.

Threshold of Stimulus Causing Action Potential

A cell may be stimulated, or caused to depolarize and

then repolarize, by subjecting the cell membrane to an ionic current.

Note: This current may be produced by other cells, it may be produced by ionic currents existing as nerve impulses, or it may be artificially produced by some external current stimulus.

A cell will be stimulated when sufficient positive ions are

added to the inside of the cell to cause its resting potential to be decreased from its 90 mV level to approximately 60 mV. Once this threshold level is reached, the cell depolarizes without requiring the addition of any further positive ions to the inside of the cell from the stimulus source.

All-or-nothing law
Regardless of the method of excitation of cells or the

intensity of the stimulus, which is assumed to be greater than the threshold of stimulus, the action potential is always same for any given cell.

Refractory periods
Following the generation of an action potential , there is a brief period of time during which the cell can not respond to any new stimulus. This period is called the absolute refractory period. (1 ms for nerve cells) Following the ARP , there occurs a relative refractory period, during which another action potential can be triggered, but a much stronger stimulation is

required. (several ms)

Refractory periods

Propagation rate
The rate at which an action potential moves down a

fiber of a nerve cell or is propagated from cell to cell is called the propagation rate or conduction velocity.
This value is depending on the type and diameter of

the nerve fiber and is from 20-140 mm/s.

But in heart muscle, it is very slower ranging from 0.2-

0.4 mm/s.

Characteristics of Action Potential

a) once the threshold has been reached, the sequence

cant be turned off or changed, regardless of how long the stimulus is continued or if it is removed. b) a second stimulus will not have any effect while the cell is in the depolarizing phase. c) when a cell is repolarizing, a grater than normal stimulus is required in order to initiate another action potential. d) The threshold level can be increased or decreased by altering the permeability of the membrane, by changing the concentration levels of sodium, potassium, calcium, etc.; by introducing drugs in to the fluid surrounding the cell. e) Once the threshold is reached, the action potential will take about 10 ms to depolarize the repolarized cells.

Synchronous Depolarization

Consider a group of cells in close proximity to one

another. under certain conditions of stimulation, these cells may all depolarize at the same time (synchronous depolarization) ; however, the repolarization process is random.
Repolarization of the individual cells will occur at

different times.

Asynchronous Depolarization
Under other conditions of stimulation, the group of

cells described previously will not all depolarize at the same time (asynchronous depolarization).
The stimulation may result in one cell depolarizing; the action of this

cell depolarizing will then act as a stimulus on its adjacent cell causing it to depolarize also.
This chain reaction would proceed until all cells in a particular area

have depolarized.

In practice, combinations of synchronous and

asynchronous depolarization occur in a group of cells.

Stimulation is not synchronous and the potential externally seen

Electrical Analog of the Cell

After assigning resistance values inversely proportional to the
relative permeability of the membrane and assuming potassium

and sodium concentration ratios, then the intracellular potential for both a polarized cell and a depolarized cell can be determined.
The values assumed are analogous to actual values four

in a cell.

Cm = membrane capacitance, ENa Ek are the Sodium potassium Nernst potentials, RK,RNa, the permeability of membrane to K and Na ions flow through membrane, Rd is the permeability of membrane to Na ion flow in depolarizing condition.

Bioelectric potentials----origin
The depolarization and repolarization undergone by a

cell from time to time, give rise to voltage waveforms, which are of interest to clinicians and biomedical engineers. Thus, each cell in the human body is a minute voltage generator, and is the source of all bioelectric potentials. These are actually ionic voltages produced by the coordinated electrochemical activity of large group of cells. In this type of synchronized action of many cells, the charges tend to migrate through the body fluids towards the still unexcited cell areas.

Bioelectric potentials----origin
Such charge migration constitutes an electrical current

and hence, sets up potential differences between various portions of the body including its outer surface.
These PD can be conveniently picked up by placing

conducting plates at any two points on the surface of the body and measured with the help of a sensitive instrument.
The bio potentials, so monitored, are highly significant

for diagnosis and therapy.

Characteristics of the various Bioelectric signals

Bioelectric Spectrum signal (Hz)
ECG 0.05-100

Potential range (v)

10-5000 covers fetal range

Sensing devices used

Surface Electrodes Needle Electrodes SE &NE

Signal origin
Heart muscles

EEG Electro encephalogram Cerebral potentials EMG

0.1-100

2-200

Neuronal activity of brain Cerebrum of the brain Skin muscles

Pulse duration 0.6 ms-0.1 s 5-2000

10-100000

Deep needle

20-5000

SE or NE

EGG

0.05-0.2

10-350

SE

Peristaltic movement of the gastro intestinal tract

ERG

0.01-200

0.5-1000

Corneal electrodes
Miniature SE

Retina of the eye

EOG

DC-100

10-3500

Corneal-retinal potential