CHAPTER

Bones and Skeletal Tissues

Drh. Rizal Damanik, MRepSc, PhD

Chemical Composition of Bone

35% organic components
Composed of cells, fibers, and organic substances Collagen abundant

65% inorganic mineral salts

Primarily calcium phosphate Resists compression

Bone Development
Ossification (osteogenesis) bone-tissue formation
Membrane bones formed directly from mesenchyme Intramembranous ossification Other bones develop initially from hyaline cartilage Endochondral ossification

Intramembranous Ossification

Intramembranous Ossification

Endochondral Ossification

All bones except some bones of the skull and clavicles

Bones are modeled in hyaline cartilage Begins forming late in 2nd month of human development

Continues forming until early adulthood

Stages in Endochondral Ossification

Anatomy of Epiphyseal Growth Areas

In epiphyseal plates of growing bones

Cartilage is organized for quick, efficient growth Cartilage cells form tall stacks

Chondroblasts at the top of stacks divide quickly

Pushes the epiphysis away from the diaphysis Lengthens entire long bone

Anatomy of Epiphyseal Growth Areas

Older chondrocytes signal surrounding matrix to calcify Older chondrocytes then die and disintegrate
Leaves long trabeculae (spicules) of calcified cartilage on diaphysis side Trabeculae are partly eroded by osteoclasts Osteoblasts then cover trabeculae with bone tissue Trabeculae finally eaten away from their tips by osteoclasts

Postnatal Growth of Endochondral Bones

During childhood and adolescence

Bones lengthen entirely by growth of the epiphyseal plates

Cartilage is replaced with bone tissue as quickly as it grows

Epiphyseal plate maintains constant thickness

Whole bone lengthens

Postnatal Growth of Endochondral Bones

As adolescence draws to an end
Chondroblasts divide less often Epiphyseal plates become thinner

Cartilage stops growing

Replaced by bone tissue Long bones stop lengthening when diaphysis and epiphysis fuse

Postnatal Growth of Endochondral Bones

Growing bones widen as they lengthen

Osteoblasts add bone tissue to the external surface of the diaphysis
Osteoclasts remove bone from the internal surface of the diaphysis

Appositional growth growth of a bone by addition of bone tissue to its surface

Growth of Other Types of Endochondral Bones

Short bones arise from a single ossification center

Irregular bones develop from distinct ossification centers Small long bones
Form from a primary ossification center and a single secondary ossification center

Hormonal Regulation of Bone Growth

Growth hormone produced by the pituitary gland
Stimulates epiphyseal plates

Thyroid hormone ensures that the skeleton retains proper proportions Sex hormones
Promote bone growth Later induces closure of epiphyseal plates

Bone Remodeling

Bone deposit and removal

Occurs at periosteal and endosteal surfaces

Bone remodeling
Bone deposition accomplished by osteoblasts Bone reabsorption accomplished by osteoclasts

Osteoclast A Bone-Degrading Cell A giant cell with many nuclei

Crawls along bone surfaces Breaks down bone tissue
Secretes concentrated hydrochloric acid

Lysosomal enzymes are released

Figure 6.11

Repair of Bone Fractures

Simple and compound fractures Treatment by reduction

Closed reduction
Open reduction

Stages of Healing a Fracture

Common Types of Fractures

Common Types of Fractures

Common Types of Fractures

Common Types of Fractures

Disorders of Bones

Osteoporosis characterized by low bone mass

Bone reabsorption outpaces bone deposition Occurs most of in women after menopause

Disorders of Bones

Osteomalacia occurs in adults bones are inadequately mineralized

Rickets occurs in children analogous to osteomalacia Paget's disease characterized by excessive rate of bone deposition

Osteosarcoma a form of bone cancer

The Skeleton Throughout Life

Cartilage grows quickly in youth

Skeleton shows fewer chondrocytes in the elderly

Bones are a timetable
Mesoderm gives rise to embryonic mesenchyme cells
Mesenchyme produces membranes and cartilage Membranes and cartilage ossify

The Skeleton Throughout Life

Skeleton grows until the age of 1821 years

In children and adolescents

Bone formation exceeds rate of bone reabsorption

In young adults
Bone formation and bone reabsorption are in balance

In old age reabsorption predominates

Bone mass declines with age