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Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Basic Concepts & Definitions Dimensions and Units Properties of the Velocity Field Thermodynamic Properties Transport Properties Flow Patterns
Continuum Concept
Fluids consist of discrete particles, the molecules. But for engineering purpose, we only need average effects due to many molecules. We can assume that fluids (and solids) are continua, i.e., continuous distributions of matter
This is satisfactory if the mean free path, , of the particle is much less than the significant length of our problem.
Example for hydrogen at 150C and 1 atm: =1.8x10-7 m, so for many practical problems continuum assumption is ok.
Other Units
S.I.: 1 Newton (N) = 1 kg m/s2 British Gravitational System: 1 lbf = 1 slug ft/s2 (1 slug = 32.174 lbm)
Unit Consistency
Units in an equation must be consistent
Example 1
Mechanical Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy
ME
1 2 mV 2
mgz
Recall:
1 km 2 m ME (7.1kg )(23 ) (7.1kg )(9.81 2 )(550cm) 2 hr s
Converting units:
1 km 2 hr m 1m 2 1000 m 2 ME (7.1kg )(23 ) ( ) ( ) (7.1kg )(9.81 2 )(550cm)( ) 2 hr 3600 sec km s 100cm
F m.a
m 1N (1kg ).(1 2 ) s m On earth 1kg weighs: (1kg ).( gearth ) (1kg )(9.81 2 )
9.81N
1slug 32.2lbm
Thus :
Recall
Tips
At the start of the problem, convert all parameters with units to the base units being used in the problem, e.g.:
For S.I. problems, convert all parameters to kg, m, and s For BG problems, convert all parameters to slug, ft, and s
Vn : the component of the velocity normal to the surface area across which the fluid flows
Vn : the component of the velocity normal to the surface area across which the fluid flows Note: Vn is measured relative to the moving boundary
4. Thermodynamic Properties
The usual thermodynamic properties are also important in fluid mechanics
P : Pressure (kPa, psi) T : Temperature (0C, 0F) : Density (kg/m3, slug/ft3)
Each gas has its own constant R, equal to a universal constant divided by the molecular weight
where = 49,700 ft2/(s2.R) = 8314 m2/(s2.K). Most problems in this class are for air, with M = 28.97
P= RT
Where, standard atmospheric pressure is 2116 lbf/ft2, and standard temperature is 60F or 520R. Thus standard air density is
Specific heats
As a first approximation in airflow analysis we commonly take cp, cv, and k to be constant
The ratio of specific heats of a perfect gas : ; kair =1.4
Actually, for all gases, cp and cv increase gradually with temperature, and k decreases gradually
Water is normally taken to have a density of 1.94 slugs/ft3 and a specific heat cp = 25,200 ft2/(s2..R). The steam tables may be used if more accuracy is required.
The density of a liquid usually decreases slightly with temperature and increases moderately with pressure. If we neglect the temperature effect, an empirical pressure-density relation for a liquid is:
where B and n are dimensionless parameters which vary slightly with temperature and pa and a are standard atmospheric values. Water can be fitted approximately to the values B 3000 and n 7.
=g
For H2O: = 9790 N/m3 = 62.4 lbf/ft3 For Air: = 11.8 N/m3 = 0.0752 lbf/ft3
Example 3
Determine the static pressure difference indicated by an 18 cm column of fluid (liquid) with a specific gravity of 0.85. See note
P = g h below
= (SG) . . h = (0.85) (9790 N/m3 ) (0.18 m) = 1498 N/m2 = 1.5 kPa
Note:
liquid SG water
water .g
(SG).( ) liquid .g
5. Transport Properties
e.g.:
coefficient of viscosity (dynamic viscosity) {M / L t }
kinematic viscosity ( / ) { L2 / t }
They relate to the diffusion of momentum due to shear stresses, as seen in following slides
A solid can resist a shear stress by a static deformation; a fluid cannot Any shear stress applied to a fluid, no matter how small, will result in motion of that fluid
The fluid moves and deforms continuously as long as the shear stress is applied.
Newtonian fluid
A fluid which has a linear relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient
Classic Problem: Viscous flow induced by relative motion between two parallel plates
No-Slip Condition
At solid boundaries, the solid and fluid molecules interlock, and there is no relative velocity between the fluid and the solid (i.e., no slip)
Its based on empirical fact, no matter how smooth the solid surface is. Exceptions are for conditions at very low pressures, such as in outerspace.
Surface Tension
Molecules deep within the liquid repel each other because of their close packing Molecules at the surface are less dense and attract each other. Since half of their neighbors are missing, the mechanical effect is that the surface is in tension We can account adequately for surface effects in fluid mechanics with the concept of surface tension
Surface tension acts in the plane of the liquid surface, and its magnitude measured in N/m (see Example 1.9) The two most common interfaces are water-air and mercury-air For a clean surface at 20C 68F, the measured surface tension is: 0.0050 lbf/ft = 0.073 N/m air-water 0.033 lbf/ft = 0.48 N/m air-mercury
Flow regions
Flows constrained by solid surfaces can typically be divided into two regimes: A) Flow near a bounding surface with
1. significant velocity gradients 2. significant shear stresses This flow region is referred to as a "boundary layer
This physically represents the ratio of inertia forces in the flow to viscous forces For most flows of engineering significance, both the characteristics of the flow and the important effects due to the flow, e.g., drag, pressure drop, aerodynamic loads, etc., are dependent on this parameter
Moderate Re implies a smoothly varying laminar flow High Re probably spells turbulent flow
which is slowly varying in the time-mean but has superimposed strong random high-frequency fluctuations
Flow issuing at constant speed from a pipe: (a) high viscosity, low-Reynolds-number, laminar flow; (b) low-viscosity, high-Reynolds-number, turbulent flow.
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
Formation of a turbulent puff in pipe flow: (a)and (b) near the entrance; (c) somewhat downstream; (d) far downstream
6. Flow Patterns
Fluid flow is generally three-dimensional
Pressures and velocities change in all directions
But, one or two-dimensional flow analysis can be useful for many practical applications
Where the changes are most significant in one or two directions only
One-Dimensional Flow
Conditions vary only in the direction of flow not across the cross-section
In certain pipe flow application we can assume 1-D flow (Average or mean velocity over the cross section is used)
Two-Dimensional Flow
Conditions vary in the direction of flow and in another direction, which is at right angle to the flow direction Flow patterns in two-dimensional flow can be shown by curved lines on a plane
The most common method of flow-pattern presentation: (a)Streamlines are everywhere tangent to the local velocity vector (b)Streamtube is formed by a closed collection of streamlines
Examples
Example 1.1 Example 1.3 Example 1.7 Example 1.9