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\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + =
3-13
3.3.1 Specific Volume
The specific volume of a two-phase liquid-vapor mixture
can be determined by using the saturation tables and
the definition of quality.
fg f
xu u u + =
vap
vap
liq
liq vap vap liq liq
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
u u
u u
u
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + =
) ( ) 1 (
f g f g f
x x x u u u u u u + = + =
3-14
3.3.2 Specific Internal Energy
The specific internal energy of a two-phase liquid-vapor
mixture can be determined by using the saturation
tables and the definition of quality.
fg f
xu u u + =
vap
vap
liq
liq vap vap liq liq
u
m
m
u
m
m
m
u m
m
u m
u
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + =
) ( ) 1 (
f g f g f
u u x u xu u x u + = + =
3-15
3.3.2 Specific Enthalpy
In many thermodynamic
analyses the sum of the
internal energy U and the
product of pressure p and
volume V appears.
Because the sum U + pV
appears so frequently, we
give this combination a
name, enthalpy, and a
distinct symbol, H.
pV U H + =
u p u h + =
u p u h + =
3-16
3.3.2 Specific Enthalpy
The specific internal energy of a two-phase liquid-vapor
mixture can be determined by using the saturation
tables and the definition of quality.
fg f
xh h h + =
vap
vap
liq
liq vap vap liq liq
h
m
m
h
m
m
m
h m
m
h m
h
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= + =
) ( ) 1 (
f g f g f
h h x h xh h x h + = + =
3-17
Examples
For water at the following conditions, determine
the phase or phases present:
1. T = 40C, P = 0.09593 bar
2. T = 250C, P = 39.73 bar, = 0.04 m
3
/kg
3. T = 250C, P = 39.73 bar, = 0.0012512 m
3
/kg
4. T = 90F, = 500 ft
3
/lb
m
5. P = 50 psi, = 0.01727 ft
3
/lb
m
6. P = 50 psi, m = 10 kg
3-18
3.3.5 Evaluating specific heats
The intensive properties c
v
and c
p
are
defined for pure, simple
compressible substances as partial
derivatives of the functions u(T,v)
and h(T,p) respectively.
We also use the specific heat ratio, k.
v
v
T
u
c
|
.
|
c
c
=
p
p
T
h
c
|
.
|
c
c
=
v
p
c
c
k =
3-19
3.3.5 Evaluating specific heats
Figure 3.9 c
p
of water vapor
3-20
3.3.6 Incompressible substance model
Approximations for liquids using saturated liquid data:
) ( ) , ( T v p T v
f
~
) ( ) , ( T u p T u
f
~
| | ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , ( T p p T v T h p T h
sat f f
+ ~
3-21
3.3.6 Incompressible substance model
For a substance modeled as incompressible, the specific
heats c
v
and c
p
are equal.
v p
c c =
}
=
2
1
) (
1 2
T
T
dT T c u u
}
+ =
+ =
2
1
) ( ) (
) (
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
T
T
p p v dt T c
p p v u u h h
3-22
3.3.6 Incompressible substance model
Assuming the specific heats are constant (not a function
of temperature)
) (
1 2 1 2
T T c u u =
) ( ) (
1 2 1 2 1 2
p p v T T c h h + =
3-23
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
The ideal gas law:
Where:
T R n pV
T R v p
=
=
basis molar
mRT pV
RT pv
=
=
basis mass
M
R
R =
3-24
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
For ideal gases:
Where:
( )
( )T RM n pV
T RM v p
=
=
basis molar
T
M
R
m pV
T
M
R
pv
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
basis mass
M
R
R =
Always use absolute pressures and
temperatures!!!
3-25
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
Universal gas constant:
Compressibility factor:
R lbf/lbmol ft 1545
R Btu/lbmol 986 . 1
K kJ/kmol 314 . 8
=
=
= R
T R
v p
Z =
R
T
v p
p
=
0
lim
Figure 3.10
3-26
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
For compressible gases:
Where:
T R Zn pV
T R Z v p
=
=
basis molar
ZmRT pV
ZRT pv
=
=
basis mass
M
R
R =
Always use absolute pressures and
temperatures!!!
3-27
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
For compressible gases:
Where:
( )
( )T RM Zn pV
T RM Z v p
=
=
basis molar
T
M
R
Zm pV
T
M
R
Z pv
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
basis mass
M
R
R =
Always use absolute pressures and
temperatures!!!
3-28
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
Figure 3.11
Z values from Figures A-1,
A-2, and A-3 in appendices.
3-29
The principle of corresponding states:
Reduced pressure:
Reduced temperature:
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
c
R
p
p
p =
Figure 3.2
c
R
T
T
T =
3-30
The principle of corresponding states:
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
Figure 3.12
3-31
3.5 Ideal gas model properties
RT T h h
T u u
RT pv
+ =
=
=
) (
) (
3-32
Examples
For water at 374.15 C and 219.9 bar (gage),
determine:
1. P
R
2. T
R
3. Z
Assume P
atm
=1 bar
3-33
ENGSC 2333 Thermodynamics
Chapter 3
3-34
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
Compressibility factor:
Reduced pressured:
Reduced temperature:
c
R
p
p
p =
T R
v p
Z =
c
R
T
T
T =
3-35
The principle of corresponding states:
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
Figure 3.12
3-36
3.4 Generalized compressibility chart
Figure 3.3
3-37
3.5 Ideal gas model properties
RT T u h
T u u
RT pv
+ =
=
=
) (
) (
3-38
3.5 Ideal gas model properties
R T c T c
R
dT
du
dT
dh
RT u h
v p
+ =
+ =
+ =
) ( ) (
3-39
c
p
in Table A-19
Note: c
v
not given
For monatomic
gases, c
p
=(5/2)R
3.5 Ideal gas model properties
1
) (
1
) (
) (
) (
=
=
k
R
T c
k
kR
T c
T c
T c
k
v
p
v
p
R T c T c
v p
+ = ) ( ) (
3-40
3.6 U and H of ideal gases
}
}
=
=
2
1
2
1
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
1 2
1 2
T
T
p
T
T
v
dT T c T h T h
dT T c T u T u
3-41
Values of the constants are listed in Table A-21.
3.6 Specific heat functions
4 3 2
T T T T
R
c
p
c o | o + + + + =
3-42
Using ideal gas tables (A-22 and A-23)
Evaluate the change in specific enthalpy for air from a state where
T
1
=400 K to a state where T
2
=900 K.
3.7 Specific heats simplified
3-43
Assuming constant specific heats (A-20)
Evaluate the change in specific enthalpy for air from a state where
T
1
=400 K to a state where T
2
=900 K.
3.7 Specific heats simplified
3-44
For a polytropic process of a closed system
3.8 Polytropic processes of an Ideal Gas
0 1 n
0 n
1 n
constant
= =
=
=
=
n
pV
3-45
For a polytropic process of a closed system
Isobaric
Isothermal
Also, when specific heats are constant, the value of the exponent n
corresponding to an adiabatic polytropic process of an ideal gas is
the specific heat ratio, k.
3.8 Polytropic processes of an Ideal Gas
0 1 n
1 n
0 n
constant
= =
=
=
=
n
pV
3-46
3.8 Polytropic processes of an Ideal Gas
1) (n for ln
1) (n for
1
2
1
1
2
1 1
2
1
1 1 2 2
2
1
1
2
= =
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
}
V
V
V p pdV
n
V p V p
pdV
V
V
p
p
n
Valid for any gas.
Remember from Chapter 2
3-47
3.8 Polytropic processes of an Ideal Gas
( )
1) (n for ln
1) (n for
1
) (
2
1
1
2
2
1
1 2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
= =
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
}
}
V
V
mRT pdV
n
T T mR
pdV
V
V
p
p
T
T
n
n
n
Valid for ideal gases.
Using pV=mRT