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Noun Pronoun Verbs Adverbs Tenses Direct and Indirect Speech Prepositions Conjunctions Interjections Sentences Parts of Speech Use of correct words and sentences

A group of words, which makes complete sense, is called a sentence. E.g.. He has a good memory

Assertive/ Declarative: A sentence which make a statement Interrogative: A sentence that ask a question Imperative: A sentence that expresses a command Exclamatory: A sentence that expresses strong feelings.

Subject: Which names the person or thing we are speaking about. Predicate: Tells something about the subject.

The boy stood on the burning deck. Stone walls do not make a prison. Miss Kitty was rude at the table one day. He has a good memory. The books are where you left them.

In Imperative sentence the subject is left out. E.G. Here comes the bus

Words are divided into different kinds or classes called parts of speech; according to their use ; that is, according to the work they do in the sentence.

Noun: A word used as the name of person, place or thing*. E.G. Akbar was a great king. Kolkata is on the bank of the river Hooghly. *Include all objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch or smell. *Something we can think of , but cannot perceive by the senses.

Pronoun: A word used in place of noun. E.G. 1. John is absent because he is ill. 2. The book are where you left them.

Verb: Word used to express an action or state. E.G. 1. The girl wrote a letter to her cousin. 2. Kolkata is a big city.

Adjective: A word used with a noun to add something for its meaning. E.G. 1. Kolkata is a large city.

Adverb: Word used to add something to the meaning of verb, an adjective, or another adverb. E.G. 1. He worked the sum quickly. 2. This flower is very beautiful.

Preposition: Word used with noun or pronoun to show how the person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to something else, as E.G. 1. There is a cow in the garden. 2. The girl is fond of music.

Conjunction: A word used to join words or sentences . E.G. 1. Rama and Hari are cousins. 2. Two and Two make four.

Interjection: A word which expresses some sudden feelings. E.G. 1. Hurrah! We have won the game. 2. Alas! She is dead.

Proper Noun: The name of some particular person or place . Written in capital letters. Common Noun: Name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind. Collective Noun: The name of a number( or collection) of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole. Abstract Noun: Name of a quality , action or state considered apart from the object to which it belongs as.

The crowd was very big. We all love honesty. Without health there is no happiness He gave me a bunch of game. Our class consist of twenty pupils. The elephant has great strength. I believe in his innocence. The Godavari overflows its banks every year. The class is studying grammar. The soldiers are rewarded for their bravery. A committee of five was appointed.

Long

Free

Strong
Wide

Poor
Humble

Broad
High Young True Wise

Short
Good Proud Decent Dark

Laugh

Move

Belief

Serve

Defend

Obey

Think

Hate

A word used in place of noun. Personal Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns Distributive Pronouns

I, We, you, he,(she, It), they are called personal pronouns because they stands for the three persons. (I) The person speaking (II) The person speaking to (III) The person spoken of

The Pronoun, I and We , which denote the person or persons speaking, are said to be personal pronoun of first person.

The pronoun You , which denote the person or persons spoken to is said to be personal pronouns of the second person.

The pronouns he(she) and they, which denote the person or persons spoken of are said to be personal pronoun of third person

Compound Personal Pronouns: When self is added to my, your, him, her, it and selves to our, your, them, we get what are called compound personal pronouns.

When the action done by the subject turns back( reflect) upon the subject.
E.G. 1. I hurt myself 2. We hurt ourselves

Compound personal pronoun are used for the sake of emphasis, and are therefore called emphatic pronouns. E.G. 1. I will do it myself. 2. I myself saw him do it.

The pronouns used to point out the objects to which they refer and are therefore, called Demonstrative Pronouns E.G. 1. This book is mine. 2. That pen is yours. That is also used to avoid the repetition of a preceding noun. E.G. The climate of Mumbai is like that of Pune.

Person or thing in general. E.G. One hardly knows what to do?

Each, either, neither, are called distributive pronouns because they refer to persons or things one at a time. For this reason they are always singular and as such followed by verb in singular. Each is used to denote everyone of a number of persons or things taken singly. Either means the one or the other of two. Neither means not the one nor the other of two.

Transitive Verbs Intransitive Verbs

Denotes an action which passes over from the doer or subject to an object. The driver stopped the train.

Denotes an action which does not pass over to an object which expresses a state. E.G. The baby sleeps. He ran a long distance

Adjective of quality E.G. Kolkata is a large city. Adjective of quantity E.g. I ate some rice. Adjective of numbers E.g. The hand has five fingers.

Rule 1: When the reporting verb or principal verb is in the past tense, all present tenses of the direct are changed into the corresponding Past Tenses. Thus: (a) Simple present to simple past Direct: He said, I am unwell Indirect: He said that he was unwell. (b) Present continuous to past continuous Direct: He said, My master is writing letters. Indirect; He said that his master was writing letters. ( c) Present perfect to past perfect Direct: He said, I have passed the examination. Indirect: He said that he had passed the examination.

(d) Shall into should (e) Will into would (f) Simple past into past perfect Direct: He said, the horse died in the night. Indirect: He said that the horse had died in the night. Tenses may not change if the sentence is still relevant or universal truth. Direct: I know her address, said Gopi. Indirect: Gopi said he knows/knew her address. Direct: The teacher said, The earth goes round the sun Indirect: The teacher said the earth goes round the sun.

Rule 2: If reporting verb is in present tense , the tenses of direct speech do not change. Direct : He says, He is unwell. Indirect: He says he is unwell.

Rule 3: The pronoun of the direct speech are changed, where necessary, so that their relations with the reporter and his hearer, rather than with the original speaker, are indicated. Direct: He said to me, I dont believe you Indirect: He said he didnt believe me. Direct: She said to him , I dont believe you. Indirect: She said she didnt believe him. Direct: I said to him, I dont believe you. Indirect: I said I didnt believe him.

Rule 4: Words expressing nearness in time or place are generally changed into words expressing distance. Thus: Now = Then Here=There Ago=Before Thus = So Today= That day Tomorrow= The next day Yesterday=The day before Last night=The night before

The changes do not occur if the speech is during the same period or at the same place , e.g. Direct: He says, I am glad to be here this evening. Indirect: He says he is glad to be here this evening. Similarly this and these are changed to that and those unless the thing pointed out is near at hand at the time of reporting the speech.

Reporting questions the indirect speech is introduced by some such verbs as asked, inquired, etc. When the question is not introduced by an interrogative word, the reporting verb is followed by whether or if. Direct: He said to me, What are you doing? Indirect: He asked me what I was doing. Direct:Where do you live?, Asked the stranger. Indirect :The stranger enquired where I lived. Direct: He said, Will you listen to such a man? Indirect : He asked them whether they would listen to such a man. Or Would they, he asked, listen to such a man?

In reporting commands and request , the Indirect speech is introduced by some verb expressing command or request and the Imperative mood is changed into infinitive. Direct: Rama said to Arjun, Go away Indirect: Rama ordered Arjun to go away. Direct: He said to him , Please wait here till I return Indirect: He requested to him to wait there till he return.

In reporting exclamations and wishes the Indirect speech is introduced by some verb expressing exclamation or wish. Direct: He said, Alas! he is ruined. Indirect: He exclaimed sadly that he was ruined. Alice said, How clever I am Alice exclaimed that she was very clever. He said, Bravo! You have done well. He applauded him, saying that he had done well.

Exercise 104,105, 106, 107 as an assignment it is of 2.5 marks.

Agreement of the verb with subject: Error of proximity: the verb is made to agree in number with a noun near it instead of with its proper subject. This should be avoided. E.G.: The quality of the mangoes was not good. The results of the recognition of this fact are seen in the gradual improvement of the diet of the poor.

Two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by and require a plural verb. E.G. : Gold and silver are precious metals. But if nouns suggest one idea to the mind, or refer to the same person or thing, the verb is singular; as, E.g.: Time and tide waits for none. Honor and glory is his reward. Words joined to singular subject by with , as well as, etc. are parenthetical. The verb should therefore be put in the singular: as, Sanskrit as well as Arabic was taught there. The ship with its crew , was lost.

Two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor require a singular verb; as, No nook or corner was left unexplored. Either the dog or the cat has been here. But when one of the subjects joined by or or nor is plural , the verb must be plural, and the plural subject should be placed nearest the verb; as, Neither the chairmen nor the directors are present.

When the subjects joined by or or nor are of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearer; as, E.g. : Either he or I am mistaken. Either you or he is mistaken Either , neither, each, everyone, many a, must be followed by a singular verb; as, E.g. : He asked me whether either of the applicants was suitable. E.g.: Neither of the men was very strong.

Some nouns which are plural in form, but singular in meaning, take a singular verb; as, E.g.: The news is true. Two nouns qualified by each or every , even though connected by and require a singular verb; as, Every boy and every girl was given a packet of sweets. A collective noun takes a singular verb when collection is thought of as one whole;' plural verb when the individuals of which it is composed are thought of; as, A committee has issued its issue. The committee are divided on one miror.

Countable nouns are used with a/an. Uncountable nouns do not have plural form and not use as a / an. The name of the possessive case should confined to the following: (i) Names of the living beings and personified objects. The Governors' bodyguards; Natures Law (ii) Nouns of space or time denoting an amount of something; as, A days work, In a years time.

When two nouns is in the possessive case are in apposition the apostrophe with s is added to the last only; as, E.g.: This is my uncle, the engineers office. E.g.: My brother Harrys watch. None is constructed in the singular or plural as the sense may require; as, E.g.: Did you buy any mangoes? There were none in the market. E.g.: Have you brought me a letter? There was none for you.

Anyone should be used when more than two persons or things are spoken of; as, E.g.: She was taller than anyone( not either) of her five sisters. Be careful to use who( nominative) and whom ( objective) correctly. Theres Mr. Dutt, who ( not whom) they say is the bets portrait painter in the town. Who they were I really cant specify. The student, whom( not who) you thought so highly of, has failed to win the first prize. Whom do you wish to see? # Note that whom is not usual except in formal English. Who replaces whom in spoken English.

Adjectives: The Adjective is correctly used with a verb when some quality of the subject , rather than the action of the verb, is to be expressed; as, The flowers smell sweet. That statement sounds queer.