Condensation of elements and compounds

Inner part of solar nebula began hotfew pre-solar solids survive; solids condensed from vapor of solar composition, as temperature decreasedhence the key to understanding the distribution of elements in the solar system is the idea of volatilitythe preference of an element for gaseous species over solids, quantified by the 50% condensation temperature (e.g., 1650 K for Al, 970 K for Na, 3 K for He)

Some of the variations in the chemical composition of primitive meteorites or planets are related to their temperature of formation

Condensation of elements and compounds

Condensation sequence
Some solid phases condense directly from vapor. Others form by reaction of vapor with previously condensed phases. Refractory component: First phases to condense: Ca-Al-oxides (corundum and then perovskite), trace elements: REE, Zr, Hf, Sc

Refractory metals with low vapor pressures, e. g., W, Os, Ir condense at similarly high temperatures as metal alloys
Corundum then reacts with vapor to form spinel and melilite which in turn react to produce diopside at lower T 2. Fe-Mg-silicates: In the reducing environment of the solar nebula Fe condenses almost entirely as metal, while Mg and Si form forsterite (Mg2SiO4) most of which is, at lower temperatures converted to enstatite (MgSiO3) by reaction with gaseous SiO

Condensation sequence
3. Metallic iron condenses at about the same temperature as forsterite, the sequence depending on pressure 4. Moderately volatile elements: The most abundant elements is sulfur which condenses by reaction of gaseous S with solid Fe at 710K, independent of pressure. Other moderately volatile elements condense in solid solution with major phases. Moderately volatile elements are distributed among sulfides, silicates and metal

5. Highly volatile elements: have condensation temperatures below FeS. The group of highly volatile elements comprises elements of very different geochemical affinity, such as the chalcophile Pb and the atmophile N and rare gases

Condensation sequence

Condensation sequence
Mercury Venus Earth Mars

Condensing ices gave the giant planets the mass to gravitationally capture H and He from nebula

Jupiter

Saturn

Bulk oxidation state of a planet is set by how much O is condensed as FeO and how much H is retained as H2O

Volatility controlled element abundances

Among the several classes of chondritic meteorites, relative abundance of all elements are controlled by volatility; this plot shows the CV/CI chondrites. Presumably similar volatility control was active during accretion of the Earth or its source materials.

CV/CI

Formation of planets
Planets formed from the disc-shaped cloud of gas and dust left over from the Sun's formation

Planetesimals

Within the solar nebula, dust and ice particles embedded in the gas moved, occasionally colliding and merging- accretion Dust accreted into planetesimals with sizes of the order of a kilometer. During this stage the interactions of solid bodies were controlled by the drag of the nebular gas

In the inner, hotter part of the solar nebula, planetesimals were composed mostly of silicates and metals. In the outer, cooler portion of the nebula, water ice was the dominant component

Planetary embryos

Planetesimals were massive enough that their gravity influenced motions of other planetesimals. This increased the frequency of collisions, through which the largest bodies grew most rapidly-

runaway growth

At the end of the planetary formation epoch the inner Solar System was populated by 50100 Moon- to Marssized planetary embryos

Further growth occurred when these bodies collided and merged, on time scales up to 100 million years by mutual gravitational perturbations Collision and growth continued until the four terrestrial planets we know today took shape

Solar nebula disperses

The growing proto-Sun accumulated much of the original material from the nebula long before planets formed. A small portion was incorporated into the planets, but the remainder was swept away when increasing temperatures and pressures initiated nuclear reactions in our Sun's core

The force of the reaction caused a strong solar wind to expel the outer layers of the Sun into space beyond our solar system. A much weaker solar wind continues to flow from our Sun today

P and T profile in the solar nebula

There was a P and T gradient in the solar nebula which changed with time The inner Solar System (4 AU) was too warm for volatile molecules like water and methane to exist

Planetesimals which formed there was made of compounds with high melting points, such as metals (like iron, nickel, and aluminum) and rocky silicates. These rocky bodies would become the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars)

P and T profile in the solar nebula

There was a P and T gradient between the inner and outer parts of the nebula

The gas giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) formed further out, beyond the frost line, the point between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the material is cool enough for volatile icy compounds to remain solid

Density and Size of Planets

We can explain composition and sizes of planets at various distances from the sun by considering: Position in the solar nebula (i.e., temperature is >1000 K at Mercury, <100 K at Jupiter) Size of the body (i.e., effect of gravity and energy of impacts towards end of accretion)