Lesson 1: Concepts, Nature and Purposes of Curriculum

Curriculum Development Annaliza Avanzado-Gando

Concept of Curriculum
It is dynamic as the changes that occurs in society. Narrow sense, curriculum is viewed merely as a listing of subjects to be taught in school. Broad sense, It refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in society as well.

 PCSPE Philippine Commission to Survey Philippine Education SOUTELE Survey of the Outcomes of Elementary Education PCER Philippine Commission for Educational Reforms
These are Philippine educational initiatives focused on curricular renewal or reforms

NCBTS National Competency Based Teacher Standards, became the anchor of reforms in education from basic to higher education.

Curriculum from different Points of View.

There are many definitions of Curriculum.
Thus it can be characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. It can also indicate dynamism.

These definitions are influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, political as well as cultural experiences.
pedagogy (pd-gj, -gj)n.1. The art or profession of teaching. 2. Preparatory training or instruction. [French pdagogie, from Old French, from Greek paidaggi, from paidaggos, slave who took children to and from school; see pedagogue.]

Traditional Points of View of Curriculum

Traditional concepts of curriculum includes curriculum is that it is a body of subjects or subject matter prepared by teachers for the students to learn. It was synonymous to the course of study and syllabus. Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as permanent studies where the rules of grammar, reading rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic education should emphasize the 3Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal education.

Traditional Points of View of Curriculum

Arthur Bestor, an essentialist, believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should be focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of grammar, literature and writing.

It should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.

Traditional Points of View of Curriculum

Joseph Schwab views the discipline as the sole source of curriculum. Thus in our educational system, curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge we call as subject areas in basic education such as English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline may include humanities, sciences, languages and many more.

Phenix believe, curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines.

Traditional Points of View of Curriculum

After the cold war and race to space, Academic discipline became the view of what curriculum is. It was Joseph Schwab a leading curriculum theorist who coined the term discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum development. Curriculum should only consist of knowledge which comes from disciplines which is the sole source. This curriculum can be viewed as a field of study. It is made up of foundations ( philosophical, historical, psychological and social foundations)), domains of knowledge as well as its research theories and principles. Curriculum is taken as scholarly and theoretical. It is concerned with broad historical, philosophical and social issues and academics. Most of the traditional idea view curriculum as written documents or a plan of action in accomplishing goals.

Progressive Points of View of Curriculum

To a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, course of study, and list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking , curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is based on John Deweys definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by application.

Progressive Points of View of Curriculum Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children have under the guidance of teachers.
Smith, Stanley and Shores share the same definition when they defined curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
Marsh and Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students.

Points of View on Curriculum Development

Curriculum is a dynamic process based from the various definitions and concepts about it. Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better means alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how a curriculum evolves.

2 Models of Curriculum Development and Concepts

Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic principles. Tylers Rationale posited 4 fundamental questions or principles in examining any curriculum in schools. These are as follows: 1. What educational purpose should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Tylers Rationale
In summary, Tylers Model show that in curriculum development, the following considerations should be made:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Purpose of the school. Educational experiences related to the purposes Organization of the experiences and Evaluation of the experiences

Hilda Tabas Linear Model

This advocacy was commonly known as the grassroots approach. She believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in developing it. 7 major steps for the linear model shows teachers could have a major input. 1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society. 2. Formulation of learning objectives 3. Selection of learning content 4. Organization of learning content 5. Selection of learning experiences 6. Organization of learning activities 7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.

3 Interacting Processes in Curriculum Development

1. Planning 2. Implementing 3. Evaluating These are the processes in curriculum development found in various curriculum models.

Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools

Allan Glatthorn ( 2000) describes seven types of curriculum operating in schools. 1. Recommended Curriculum proposed by scholars and professional organizations. 2. Written Curriculum appears in school, district, division or country documents. 3. Taught Curriculum what teachers implement or deliver in the classrooms and schools. 4. Supported Curriculum resources-textbooks, computers, audiovisual materials which support and help in the implementation of the curriculum. 5. Assessed curriculum that which is tested and evaluated. 6. Learned Curriculum what the students actually learn and what is measured, and 7. Hidden Curriculum the unintended curriculum.

Recommended Curriculum
Most of the school curricula are recommended. National agencies that issued recommended curriculums are: 1. CHED Commission on Higher Education 2. DOST Department of Science and Technology or any professional organization who has a stake in education like 2.1 PAFTE Philippine Association for Teacher Education 2.2 BIOTA Biology Teacher Association , they may recommend a curriculum to be implemented in the elementary or secondary education.

Written Curriculum
This includes documents, course of study or syllabi handed down to schools, districts, divisions, departments or colleges for implementation. Most of the written curricula are made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers. Written curricula are pilot tested or tried out in sample schools or population.

Examples: Basic Education Curriculum ( BEC) Written lesson plan of each classroom teacher made up of objectives and activities planned by the teacher.

Taught Curriculum
This includes the different planned activities which are put into action in the classroom.

These are varied activities that are implemented in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. These are used by the learners with the guidance of teachers.
Taught curriculum varies according to the learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers.

Supported Curriculum
For teaching to be successful, aside from teachers, there must be materials which should support or help in the implementation of a written curriculum. Support curriculum includes material resources such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, zoos and other facilities.

Support curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and lifelong learning.

Assessed Curriculum
This refers to the tested or evaluated curriculum. At the duration and end of the teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being done by the teachers to determine the extent of teaching or tell if the students are progressing, referred to as the assessed curriculum.

Assessment tools like the pencil and paper tests, authentic instruments like portfolio are being utilized.

Learned Curriculum
This refers to the learning outcomes achieved by the students. Learning outcomes are indicated by the results of the test and changes in behavior which can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor.

Hidden Curriculum
This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned but may modify behavior or influence learning outcomes. There are lots of hidden curricula that transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical condition, teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teachers and many other factors make up the hidden curriculum.

Major Foundations of Curriculum

Commonly accepted foundations include: 1. 2. 3. 4. Philosophical foundations Historical foundations Psychological foundations Social foundations

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework for planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials and methods should be used. In decision-making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be used for the succeeding decision making.

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

The philosophy of a curriculum planner, implementer or evaluator reflects his or her life experiences, common beliefs, social and economic background and education. For example, John Dewey (1916) looks at education as a way of life a laboratory in which philosophy becomes concrete and is tested.

Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Ralph Tylers framework shows that philosophy is one of the five criteria in selecting educational purposes.
Suggestions from Subject Specialists

Tylers View of Philosophy in Relation to School Purposes

Studies of Learners

Studies of Contempor ary Life

School Purposes

Use of Philosophy

Use of Psychology of Learning

4 Educational Philosophies and its relation to Curriculum

Educational Philosophy Aim of Education Role of Education Focus in the Curriculum Curriculum Trends Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism Reconstructionism

An educational philosophy lays the strong foundation of any curriculum. A curriculum planner or specialist, a curriculum implementer or the teacher, school administrator or curriculum evaluator whether school-based or externally based anchors his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy.

4 Educational Philosophies and its relation to Curriculum

Educational Philosophy Aim of Education Role of Education Perennialism To educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect The teachers help students think with reason. Based on Socratic methods of oral exposition or recitation of explicit or deliberate teaching of traditional values.

Focus in the Curriculum

Curriculum Trends

Classical subjects, literary analysis and curriculum is constant.

Use of great books and return to liberal arts. (Liberal education of Ateneo simply means that students become well rounded individuals: they study languages, humanities, arts, and sciences, regardless of their chosen course. The core curriculum is the essence of Ateneos liberal education.)

4 Educational Philosophies and its relation to Curriculum

Educational Philosophy Essentialism

Aim of Education

To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a competent person.
The teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area or field of specialization. Essential skills of the 3 Rs and essential subjects of English, Science, History, Math and Foreign Language Excellence in education, back to basics and cultural literacy

Role of Education Focus in the Curriculum Curriculum Trends

4 Educational Philosophies and its relation to Curriculum

Educational Philosophy Progressivism

Aim of Education
Role of Education

To promote democratic and social living.

Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong learners who actively learn by doing Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive. Curriculum is focused on students interest, human problems and affairs. School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum, humanistic education.

Focus in the Curriculum

Curriculum Trends

4 Educational Philosophies and its relation to Curriculum

Educational Philosophy Reconstructionism

Aim of Education
Role of Education

To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change.

Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various educational projects including research. Focus on present and future trends and issues of national and international interests. Equality of educational opportunities in education, access to global education.

Focus in the Curriculum Curriculum Trends

Educational Philosophies and its relation to Curriculum

Educational philosophy lays the strong foundation of any curriculum. A curriculum planner or specialist, Curriculum implementer or teacher, School administrator or curriculum evaluator, whether school-based or externally based anchors his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy.

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars place its beginning in 1918 with the publication of Franklin Bobbits book The Curriculum. Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced back to our glorious history. Of all foreign educational systems, the American educational system has the greatest influence on our educational system.

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

Several Curriculum Theorist with their historical perspective on curriculum are chronologically presented from the time of Franklin Bobbit ( 1876- 1956) to Ralph W. Tyler ( 1902-1994). 1. Franklin Bobbit ( 1876-1956) Bobbit presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes on students need. Curriculum prepares students for adult life. To Bobbit, objectives with corresponding activities should be grouped and sequence. This can only be done if instructional activities and tasks are clarified. 2. Werret Charters ( 1875-1952). Like Bobbit , to Charters curriculum is a science. It gives emphasis on student needs. Listings of objectives should match corresponding activities to ensure content or subject matter be related to objectives. Subject matter and activities are planned by the teacher.

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

3. William Kilpatrick ( 1871-1965) Curricula are purposeful activities which are child centered. The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. The project method was introduced by Kilpatrick where teacher and student plan the activities. The curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction. 4. Harold Rugg ( 1886-1960) To Rugg, curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-centered. With the statement of objectives and related learning activities , curriculum should produce outcomes. Harold Rugg emphasized social studies and the teacher plans curriculum in advance.

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

5. Hollis Caswell ( 1901-1989) Sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and learners interest. Caswell believes that curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners interests.

6. Ralph Tyler ( 1902-1994) As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, Tyler believes that curriculum is a science and an extension of schools philosophy. It is based on students needs and interest. To Tyler, curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values. The process emphasizes problem solving. The curriculum aims to educate generalist and not specialists.

Historical Foundations of Curriculum

It is important to discuss the historical foundation of Curriculum for it shows the different changes in the purposes, principles and content of the curriculum. The different changes are influenced by the educational philosophy, psychology and pedagogical theories. These implies that curriculum is ever changing putting in knowledge and content for many fields of disciplines.

Psychological Foundations of Education

Psychology provides a basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies the elements of the learning process and some of the questions which can be addressed by the psychological foundations of education. How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimum level of students participation in learning the various contents of the curriculum?

Psychological Foundations of Education

Three Groups of learning theories will be discussed. These are: 1. Behaviorism or association theories 2. Cognitive-information processing theories 3. Humanistic theories

Psychological Foundations of Education Behaviorist Psychology

Behaviorism dominated the 20th century psychology. It includes: 1. Connectionism of Edward Thorndike. ( Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba were influenced by it.) 2. Classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov 3. Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner 4. Modeling and Observation Theory by Bandura 5. Hierarchical learning or sets of behavior and five learning outcomes by Robert Gagne became the classic examples.

Psychological Foundations of Education Behaviorist Psychology

1. Connectionism of Edward Thorndike. ( Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba were influenced by it.)

S-R or Stimulus Response Theory by Thorndike.

A. LAW OF EFFECT. Connections are strengthened if the consequence or the effect is positive. In short, behavior or learning will take place or be repeated if the result of such action is pleasant. For example, students would want to study more if they know that they will be given a reward or a treat when they will get high grades. On the other hand, connection between the stimulus and response weakens when the effect is negative. For example, students will not be noisy because they know that they will be scolded if they do so

Psychological Foundations of Education Behaviorist Psychology

1. Connectionism of Edward Thorndike. ( Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba were influenced by it.)

S-R or Stimulus Response Theory by Thorndike.

B. LAW OF EXERCISE. Practice makes perfect. This is the
cliche that could best describe this law. This means that the more you do or practice a certain behavior, then it will be strengthened. Connection becomes strong. However, practice or exercise doesn't strengthened a behavior or performance without feedback. Feedback is necessary especially if we aim for an improved performance or behavior.

Psychological Foundations of Education Behaviorist Psychology

1. Connectionism of Edward Thorndike. ( Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba were influenced by it.)

S-R or Stimulus Response Theory by Thorndike.

C. LAW OF READINESS. Proper mind set is the key word in this law. This law states that the more "ready" an individual to respond to a stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. And, if an individual is ready to respond but is not made to respond, it becomes frustrating and annoying to that person.

Psychological Foundations of Education Behaviorist Psychology

2. Classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov
This is learning by association. A Russian physiologist called Ivan Pavlov, studied salivation in dogs as part of his research programme. Normally, dogs will salivate at the when food is presented, but Pavlov was interested why the dogs had started to salivate when the saw the people that usually fed them (they also responded to the sound of the dishes being used for their meals). Pavlov set up an experiment to find out if the dogs could be trained to salivate at other stimuli such as the sound of a bell or a light. At feeding times, Pavlov would ring a bell and the amount of saliva produced by the dog was measured. After several 'trials' Pavlov rang the bell without presenting the food and found that the dogs salivated in the same way as if food was being presented. You will note that the conditional response is the same as the unconditioned response, the only difference being that the response is evoked by a different stimulus.

Psychological Foundations of Education Behaviorist Psychology

4. Modelling and Observation Theory by Bandura Or Social learning theory. People learn through observing others behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action. (Bandura). Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

Psychological Foundations of Education Behaviorist Psychology

4. Modelling and Observation Theory by Bandura Or Social learning theory.

Necessary conditions for effective modeling: Attention various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. Ones characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention. Retention remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal Reproduction reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and self-observation of reproduction. Motivation having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)

Psychological Foundations of Education Behaviorist Psychology

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 5 Learning Outcomes includes: Intellectual skills or knowing how to categorize and use symbols, forming concepts and problem solving; Information or knowing what knowledge about facts, dates and names; Cognitive strategies or learning skills; Motor skills; and Attitudes, feelings and emotions learned through experiences ( Gagne, 1987) The listed learning outcomes overlap with the domains in the taxonomy of educational objectives which are cognitive, affective and psychomotor.

Psychological Foundations of Education Behaviorist Psychology

To a behaviorist, learning should be organized in order that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter. The method is introduced in a step by step manner with proper sequencing of task which is viewed by other educational psychologist as simplistic and mechanical.

Psychological Foundations of Education Cognitive Psychology

Some of the basic questions asked by cognitive psychologist are: How do learners store informaiton? How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions? These psychologist focus their attention on how individuals process information and how they monitor and manage thinking.

Psychological Foundations of Education Cognitive Psychology

Some of the advocates of Cognitive Psychology are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Jean Piaget for his Cognitive Development Stages. Lev Vygostky for his Social Constructivism. Howard Gardner for his Multiple Intelligences Felder and Silverman for their Learning Styles Daniel Goleman for Emotional Intelligences

Psychological Foundations of Education Cognitive Psychology

To the cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing, and interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the cognitive development theory. Teachers used a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching and learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning and many others.

Psychological Foundations of Education Humanistic Psychology

Humanist psychologist are concerned with how learners can develop their human potential. While traditional psychology do not recognize humanistic psychology as a school of psychology, however, observers view humanistic psychology as the third force learning theory after behaviorism and cognitive development.

Psychological Foundations of Education Humanistic Psychology

Theories includes: 1. Gestalt Psychology where learning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is changing and the learner is continuously reorganizing his or her perceptions. 2. Abraham Maslow's Theory of human needs for selfactualizing persons.

3. Carl Rogers non-directive lives, also fall under humanistic psychology.

Psychological Foundations of Education Humanistic Psychology

Among the humanistic psychologists, curriculum is concerned with the process not the products; personal needs not subject matter; psychological meaning and environmental situations. In summary, psychology has a great influence in the curriculum. Learners are not machines and the mind is not a computer. Humans are biological beings affected by their biology and their cultures. The psychological foundations will help curriculum makers in nurturing a more advanced, more comprehensive and complete human learning.

Social Foundations of Education.

School exist within the social context. Schools and curricula are shaped and effected by Societal culture. Examples: The way school buildings are structured. The way classrooms and students are organized reflect the cultural views and values of the society.

Social Foundations of Education.

In considering the social foundations of curriculum, we must recognize: That schools are only one of the many institutions that educate society. That the home, the family, community likewise educate the people in the society. That schools are formal institutions that address more complex and interrelated societies and the world.

Social Foundations of Education.

Society as ever dynamic is a source of very fast changes which are difficult to cope with and adjust to.

Schools are made to understand these changes. Some observers point to the fact that schools are conservative institutions that lag behind instead of being agents of change

Thus in order for schools to be relevant, school curricula should address diversity, explosion of knowledge, school reforms and education for all.

Social Foundations of Education.

Relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing.

Curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations.

Society should imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institutions called schools.