University of Tripoli Department of petroleum geology

Folds & Faults

Content
Introduction Definition of folds. Types of folds. Definition of faults. Types of faults.

Summary.
Reference.

Introduction
Structural geology : is the study of three dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories The study of geologic structures has been of prime importance in economic geology Folded and faulted rock strata commonly forms traps or the accumulation and concentration of fluids such as petroleum and natural gas

Folds
The term fold is used in geology when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of plastic (i.e. permanent) deformation , Folds form under varied conditions of stress, hydrostatic pressure, pore pressure Terminology --Hinge (axis) --Axial plane --Crest (Apex) --Crest Surface --Trough --Plunge --limp

Folds type: Anticline Syncline Tight Fold Overturned fold

Recumbent Fold

Anticline
In structural geology, an anticline is a fold that is convex up and has its oldest beds at its core . Fold mountains are formed when the crust is pushed up as tectonic plates collide. When formed, these mountains are usually enormous like the newly formed Rocky Mountains in Western Canada and the United States

Anticlines and structural domes are favored locations for oil and natural gas drilling

Syncline
A syncline is similar to an anticline, in that it is formed by the compression of a tectonic plate. However, a syncline occurs when the plate bends in a downward motion. The lowest part of the syncline is known as the trough. on a geologic map, synclines are recognized by a sequence of rock layers that grow progressively younger, followed by the youngest layer at the fold's center or hinge , If the fold pattern is circular or elongate circular the structure is a basin.

Tight Fold
A tight fold is a sharp peaked anticline or syncline. It is just a regular anticline or syncline, but was compressed with a greater force causing the angle to be much smaller. Folds such as these occur to form steep mountain slopes like those in Whistler, British Columbia. Angle between the folds limbs rang from 30 to 0

Overturned fold
An over fold takes place when folding rock becomes bent or warped. axial plane is inclined and both limbs in the same direction , usually at different angle

Sometimes the folds can become so disfigured that they may even overlap each other.

Recumbent Fold
This type of fold is compressed so much that it is no longer vertical. There is a large extent of overlapping and it can take the form of an s.

To the right is a diagram that shows the process of recumbent folding.

Faults
Fault is planner fracture in rock in which the rock on one side of the fracture has moved with respect to the rock on the other side , Earth quakes are caused by energy release during rapid slippage along a fault Terminology --Hanging wall --Foot wall --Fault plane --Fault zone --Fault block

--fault heave --fault throw --branch line

Types : Dip-slip fault - Normal Fault - Reverse Fault Strike-slip Fault Oblique-slip fault Horst & Graben

Normal Fault
In a normal fault, the block above the fault moves down relative to the block below the fault. This fault motion is caused by tensional forces and results in extension. Other names: normalslip fault, tensional fault or gravity fault. On the top right is the movement of a normal fault. A picture is also shown below. Notice the displacement of the different types of rock on each side of the fault.

Reverse Fault
Reverse faults are the opposite of normal faults. Rocks are compressed such that one plate moves up while the other descends below it. When plates compress and crack, usually the more dense one is forced under the less dense one. This is similar to the action of the continental crust colliding with the oceanic crust. Here the more dense crust, being the oceanic crust is forced under the continental crust. To the right is an animation of a reverse fault. Below that is a real picture of what a reverse fault looks like.

Strike-slip Fault
A strike-slip fault , also known as a transform fault, occurs when two tectonic plates slide in a lateral motion past each other. This type of fault causes the most severe earthquakes because they grind against each other. These earthquakes can either be shallow or deep and cause tremors over a short or long period of time. Strike-slip faults can occur frequently, especially along the coast of California.

Oblique Fault
Oblique-slip faulting suggests both dip-slip faulting and strikeslip faulting. It is caused by a combination of shearing and tension of compressional forces.

Horst & Graben Fault

A Horst is the opposite of a rift valley. The land between the parallel faults is forced upward because the two faults are being pushed together.

This process can take a long time to occur because the average plate movement is one inch per year
There are examples of horst faults on the left.

Summary
Folding and faulting has a major influence on the way the earth looks. Mountains form and disappear over time, as well as large rift valleys and other features. This has an impact on where and how we live.

Folded and faulted rock strata commonly form traps for the accumulation and concentration of fluids such as petroleum and natural gas.
Faulted and structurally complex areas are notable as permeable zones for hydrothermal fluids and the resulting concentration areas for base and precious metal or deposits.

Reference
Geology geophysics in oil exploration , Mahmoud Sroor Structural geology An Introduction to Geometrical Techniques , Donal M. Ragan

Notes from website

Thanks for your attention