Control Charts

UCL UWL

Statistics

Target LWL LCL

Sample Number

1. Introduction

Introduction
Quality control charts, are graphs on which the quality of the product is plotted as manufacturing or servicing is actually proceeding. By enabling corrective actions to be taken at the earliest possible moment and avoiding unnecessary corrections, the charts help to ensure the manufacture of uniform product or providing consistent services which complies with the specification.

History of Control Chart

Mr. Shewart, an American, has been credited with the invention of control charts for variable and attribute data in the 1920s, at the Bell Telephone Industries. The term Shewart Control Charts is in common use.

Dynamic Picture of Process

Plotting graph, charting and presenting the data as a picture is common to process control method, used throughout the manufacturing and service industries. Converting data into a picture is a vital step towards greater and quicker understanding of the process.

Confidence While Control Charting

Control charting enables everyone to make decision and to know the degree of confidence with which the decisions are

made. There may be some margin of error. No technique,

even 100% automated inspection, can guarantee the validity of the result; there is always some room to doubt.

Control Charts
Statistically based control chart is a device intended to be used - at the point of operation - by the operator of that process - to asses the current situation - by taking sample and plotting sample result To enable the operator to decide about the process.

What Control Chart Does?

It graphically, represents the output of the process. And

Uses statistical limits and patterns of plot, for decision making

Analogy to Traffic Signal

A control chart is like a traffic signal, the operation of which is based on evidence from samples taken at random intervals. A green signal - Process be allowed to continue without adjustment A yellow signal - Wait and watch trouble is possible A red signal - Process has wandered Investigate and adjust

Analogy to Traffic Signal

Stop Investigate/Adjust

Wait and Watch

Go No action on Process

Decision About The Process

Go
To let the process continue to run without any adjustment.
This means only common causes are present.

Decision About the Process

Wait and watch

Be careful and seek for more information
This is the case where presence of trouble is possible

Decision About the Process Stop Take action ( Investigate/Adjust )

This means that there is practically no doubt a special cause has crept in the system. Process has wandered and corrective actions must be taken, otherwise defective items will be produced.

2. Why control charts

Why Control Chart?

To ensure
that the output of the process is-

Normal

Whether Output is Normal?

Both histogram and control chart can tell us whether the output is normal? However, Histogram views the process as history , as the entire output together. Control chart views the process in real time,

at different time intervals as the process progresses.

Histogram a History of Process Output

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Frequency

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48 49 50 51 52 53 54 kg

Control Chart Views Process in Real Time

Output of the process in real time Target Mean UCLx Target LCLx Range UCLr

Time Intervals

Why Control Chart?

It helps in finding
is there any change in location of process mean in real time

Change in Location of Process Mean

Process with mean at less than target Process with mean at more than target

Process with mean at Target

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Why Control Chart?

It helps in finding
Is there any change in the spread of the process in
real time?

Change in Spread of Process

Larger spread due to special causes Spread due to common causes

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Why Control Chart?

To keep the cost of production minimum
Since the control chart is maintained in real time, and gives us a signal that some special cause has crept into the system, we can take timely action. Timely action enables us to prevent manufacturing of defective. Manufacturing defective items is non value added activity; it adds to the cost of manufacturing, therefore must be avoided. By maintaining control chart we avoid 100% inspection, and thus save cost of verification.

Why Control Chart?

Pre-requisite for process capability studies
Process capability studies, are based on premises that the process during the study was stable i.e. only common causes were present. This ensures that output has normal distribution. The stability of the process can only be demonstrated by maintaining control chart during the study.

Why Control Chart?

Decision in regards to production process Control chart helps in determining whether we should : - let the process to continue without adjustment

- seek more information

- stop the process for investigation/adjustment.

3. Basic steps for control charting

Basic Steps for Control Charts

Step No. 1
Identify quality characteristics of product or process that affects fitness for use.

Maintaining control chart is an expensive activity. Control charts should be maintained only for critical quality characteristics. Design of Experiments is one of the good source to find the critical quality characteristics of the process.

Basic Steps for Control Charts

Step No . 2
Design the sampling plan and decide method of its measurement.
At this step we decide, how many units will be in a sample and how frequently the samples will be taken by the operator.

Basic Steps for Control Charts

Step No. 3
Take samples at different intervals and plot statistics of the sample measurements on control chart.
Mean, range, standard deviation etc are the statistics of measurements of a sample. On a mean control chart, we plot the mean of sample and on a range control chart, we plot the range of the sample.

Basic Steps for Control Charts

Step No. 4
Take corrective action - when a signal for significant change in process characteristic is received.
Here we use OCAP (Out of Control Action Plan) to investigate, as why a significant change in the process has occurred and then take corrective action as suggested in OCAP, to bring the process under control.

Summary of Control Chart Techniques

In Control Chart Technique we have
Quality characteristics Sampling procedure Plotting of statistics Corrective action

4. Typical control chart

Elements of Typical Control Chart

1. Horizontal axis for sample number 2. Vertical axis for sample statistics e.g. mean, range, standard deviation of sample.

3. Target Line
4. Upper control line 5. Upper warning line 6. Lower control line 7. Lower warning line 8. Plotting of sample statistics 9. Line connecting the plotted statistics

Elements of Typical Control Chart

Upper control line Upper warning line

Sample Statistics

Target

Lower warning line Lower control line

2 3 4 Sample Number

5. Types of control chart

Types of Control Chart

We have two main types of control charts. One for variable data and the other for attribute data.
Since now world-wide, the current operating level is number of parts defective per million parts produced, aptly described as PPM; control charts for attribute data has no meaning. The reason being that the sample size for maintaining control chart at the PPM level, is very large, perhaps equal to lot size, that means 100% inspection.

Most Commonly Used Variable Control Charts

Following are the most commonly used variable control charts:

To track the accuracy of the process

- Mean control chart or x-bar chart

To track the precision of the process

- Range control chart

Most Common Type of Control Chart for Variable Data For tracking Accuracy Mean control chart

Variable Control Chart

For tracking Precision Range control chart

6. Concepts behind control charts

Understanding effect of shift of process mean

Case When Process Mean is at Target

Target L -3s Process Mean U +3 s U-L=6s

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Chances of getting a reading beyond U & L is almost nil

Case - Small Shift of the Process Mean

Small shift in process L Process Mean U
Shaded area shows the probability of getting a reading beyond U

Target
U-L = 6 s

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Chances of getting a reading outside U is small

Case - Large Shift of the Process Mean

Large shift in process Process Mean U Shaded area shows the probability of getting a reading beyond U

Target L U-L = 6 s

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Chances of getting a reading outside U is large

Summary of Effect of Process Shift

When there is no shift in the process nearly all the observations fall within -3 s and + 3 s. When there is small shift in the mean of process some observations fall

outside original -3 s and +3 s zone.

Chances of an observation falling outside original -3 s and + 3 s zone increases with the increase in the shift of process mean.

Our Conclusion from Normal Distribution

When an observation falls within original +3 s and -3 s zone of mean of a process, we conclude that there is no shift in the mean of process. This is so because falling of an observation between these limits is a chance. When an observation falls beyond original +3 s and -3 s zone of process mean, we conclude that there is shift in location of the process

7. Distribution of population vs Distribution of mean

Distribution of Mean of Samples

Since on the control charts for accuracy we plot and watch the trend of the means and ranges of the samples, it is necessary

that we should understand the behaviour of

distribution of mean of samples.

Distribution of Averages of Samples

Suppose we have a lot of 1000 tablets, and let us say, weight of the tablets follows a normal distribution having a standard deviation, s.

Let us take a sample of n tablets. Calculate mean of the sample and record it. Continue this exercise of taking samples, calculating the mean of samples and recording, 1000 times.
The mean of samples shall have normal distribution with standard deviation, Sm = (s n). Distribution of population and means of sample shall have same means.

Distribution - Population Vs Sample Means

Distribution of means of samples [standard deviation = (s n)]

Distribution of population (standard deviation = s)

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Quality Characteristics

Control and Warning Limits for Mean Control Chart

If we know the standard deviation of the population, say s and the number of units in a sample, say n; then the control and warning limits are calculated as follows: If desired target of the process is T, then
Upper control limit, UCL = T + 3 (s n) Upper warning limit. UWL = T + 2 (s n) Lower control limit, LCL = T - 3 (s n) Lower warning limit, LWL = T - 2 (s n)

Control Limits for Mean Control Chart

Distribution of mean of samples UCL 3 (s n) 3 (s n) UWL 2 (s n) Target 2 (s n) LWL LCL

Sample Number

8. Establishing Control Charts

Establishing Control Chart

Step No.1 Select quality characteristics which needs to be controlled - Weight - Length - Viscosity - Tensile Strength - Capacitance

Establishing Control Chart

Step No.2 Decide the number of units, n to be taken in a sample.
The minimum sample size should be 2. As the sample size increases then the sensitivity i.e. the quickness with which the chart gives an indication of shift of the process increases. However, with the increase of the sample size cost of inspection also increases.

Generally, n can be 4 or 5.

Establishing Control Chart

Step No. 3
Decide the frequency of picking up of sample If the shift in the process average causes more loss, then take smaller samples more frequently. If the cost of inspection is high then take smaller samples at large interval.

Establishing Control Chart

As and general guidance, for deciding the frequency of taking a sample, we can use the table given in the next slide. If our lot size in a shift is say 3000, then in a shift we require 50 units. If the sample size n, is say 4 then

Number of visits to the process is = 504 = 12

The time of an 8-hour shift, be divided in 12 equal parts. Samples should be taken round about every 45 minutes.

Establishing Control Chart

Lot Size 66 - 100 101 - 180 181 - 300 301 - 500 501 - 800 801 - 1300 1301 - 3200 3201 - 8000 Total Number of items 10 15 25 30 35 40 50 60

Establishing Control Chart

Step No. 4
Collect data on a special control chart data collection sheet. ( Minimum 100 observations) The data collection sheet has following main portions:
1. General details for part, department etc. 2. Columns for date and time sample taken 3. Columns for measurements of sample 4. Column for mean of sample 5. Column for range of sample

Typical Data Collection Sheet

Part SN Date Operation Time X1 1 2 3 .. 25 Measurement Mean Range X2 X3 X4 Other Details

Establishing Control Chart

Step No. 5
Fill up the control chart data sheet
1) As per the plan, visit the process and collect a sample of required number of units. 2) Measure the units and record. 3) Take requisite number of samples ( 20-25). 4) Calculate the mean of each of the sample. 5) Calculate the range of each of the sample.

9. Establishing Trial Control Limits

Example - Establishing Trial Control Limits

A supervisor decided to put his process under statistical control. For the purpose of establishing control chart he collected 10 samples (Normally it should be 20 samples) containing 5 units. The samples were measured and the same is shown in the next slide. The desired target of the process, T is 50. Establish control chart for monitoring the process.

Example - Data Collection

Subgroup No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Subgroup Reading X1 47 48 49 49 51 50 51 50 48 49 X2 45 52 48 50 50 50 48 48 48 50 X3 48 47 52 52 53 49 50 50 49 50 X4 52 50 50 50 50 51 50 50 50 52 X5 51 50 49 49 48 47 54 52 51 51 Mean of subgroup Range of subgroup

Example - Calculation of Subgroup No.1

Measurements are 47, 45, 48, 52 & 51 Mean of measurements of subgroup No. 1 = (47 + 45 + 48 + 52 + 51)/5 = 48.6 Range of measurements of subgroup No. 1 = ( largest reading - smallest reading ) = ( 52 - 45 ) =7

Example - Calculation of subgroup Mean & Range

Subgroup No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Subgroup Reading X1 47 48 49 49 51 50 51 50 48 49 X2 45 52 48 50 50 50 48 48 48 50 X3 48 47 52 52 53 49 50 50 49 50 X4 52 50 50 50 50 51 50 50 50 52 X5 51 50 49 49 48 47 54 52 51 51 Mean of subgroup 48.6 49.4 49.6 50.0 50.4 49.4 50.6 50.0 49.2 50.2 Range of subgroup 7 5 4 3 5 4 6 4 3 3

Establishing Control Chart

Step No. 6

Calculate Mean Range, R

R=

Sum of ranges of subgroups

Total number of subgroups

In our case
R=

(7 + 5 +4 3 + 5 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 3 + 3 )
Total number of subgroups

Establishing Control Chart

Step No. 7
Using following table of constants find trial control limit for mean and range control chart

Sub Group Size 2 3 4 5 6 7

A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419

D4 3.267 2.527 2.282 2.115 2.004 1.924

D3 0 0 0 0 0 0.076

Establishing Control Chart

Step No. 8
Calculate Trial control Limits with target value, T Trial control limits for mean control chart Upper Control Limit, UCLx = T + A2 x R Lower Control Limit, LCLx = T - A2 x R Trial control limits for range control chart

Upper Control Limit, UCLr = D4 x R Lower Control Limit, LCLr = D3 x R

Calculation of Trial Control Limits

Size of Subgroup, n = 5 Factor A2, when n is 5 = 0.577 Factor D4, when n is 5 = 2.115 Factor D3, when n is 5 = 0

Target value, T = 50
Mean Range, R = 4.4

Establishing Control Chart

Step No. 8

Trial control Limits in our case

For mean control chart Upper Control Limit, UCLx = 50 + 0.577 x 4.4=52.5 Lower Control Limit, LCLx = 50 - 0.577 x 4.4=47.5 For range control chart Upper Control Limit, UCLr = 2.115 x 4.4 = 9.3 Lower Control Limit, LCLr = 0 x 4.4 = 0

Establishing Control Chart

Step No. 9
Discard the outliers

Outliers are those observations which do not belong to normal

population. If Outliers are included in the calculation, then the information is distorted.

Checking for Outliers

Checking for mean outliers
Scan column of sample means. If any mean of sample is more than UCLx or less than LCLx then drop that sample.

Checking for range outliers

Scan column of sample range. If any range is more than UCLr then drop that sample.

Checking for Outliers

If any sample(s) is dropped then recalculate the trial control limits using remaining sample(s). Continue this exercise till there is no further droppings. When there is no further dropping trial control limits becomes control limits for control chart. In all we can drop up to 25% of the samples

Checking for Outliers In our case

- None of the subgroup mean is more than 52.5
- None of the subgroup mean is less than 47.5 - None of the range is more than 9.3 - None of the range is less than 0 Hence there is no revision of trial control limits is required. These limits can be used for maintaining the control charts.

Calculation of Control Limits for Mean Control Chart Step No. 10

Compute warning limits for mean control chart

Upper warning limit, UWLx = T +

2 x A2 x R 3

Lower warning limit, LWLx = T -

2 x A2 x R
3

Calculation of Control Limits for Mean Control Chart

Warning limits for mean control chart in our example

Uwlx = 50 + = 51.7 Lwlx = 50 = 48.3

2 x 0.577 x 4.4
3

2 x 0.577 x 4.4
3

Action and Warning Limits for Mean Control chart

UCLx UWLx Mean

Target LWLx
LCLx

2 3 4 5 Sample Number

Action and Warning Limits for Mean Control Chart for Example UCLx=52.5 UWLx=51.7 Mean Target=50

LWLx=48.3
LCLx= 47.5

2 3 4 5 Sample Number

Constants for Range Control chart

Sample size, n 2 3 4 5 6 7 D4 3.27 2.57 2.28 2.11 2.00 1.92 D3 0 0 0 0 0 0.08 DWLR 0.04 0.18 0.29 0.37 0.42 0.46 DWUR 2.81 2.17 1.93 1.81 1.72 1.66

Calculation of Control Limits for Range Control Chart

Step No. 11
Compute warning limits for range control chart
Upper Warning Limit, UWLr = DWUR x R

Lower Warning Limit, LWLr = DWLR x R

Action and Warning Limits for Control Chart

UCLx UWLx Mean Target LWLx LCLx UCLr UWLr R LWLr

Range

2 3 4 5 Sample Number

Calculation of Warning Limits for Range Control Chart

In our case
Size of sub group, n = 5

Mean range R = 4.4

DWUR when n is 5 = 1.81 DWLR when n is 5 = 0.37

Calculation of Warning Limits for Range Control Chart

In our case warning limits for range control chart
Upper Warning Limit, UWLr = DWUR x R
= 1.81 x 4.4 =8

Lower Warning Limit, LWLr = DWLR x R

= 0.37 x 4.4 = 1.6

Action and Warning Limits for Control Chart

UCLx = 52.5 UWLx = 51.7

Mean

Target = 50 LWLx = 48.3 LCLx = 47.5 UCLr = 9.3

Range

UWLr = 8

R = 4.4 LWLr = 1.6

2 3 4 5 Sample Number

Flow Chart for Establishing Control Chart Start

Decide subgroup size

Record observations

Find mean and range of each subgroup

Calculate mean range, R

Flow Chart for Establishing Control Chart UCLx = T + A2 x R LCLx = T - A2 x R UCLr = D4 x R LCLr = D3 x R

Is any sub-group mean or range out side the control limit ?

Yes

Drop that Group

No

Flow Chart for Control Chart

Select suitable scale for mean control chart and range control chart

Draw Lines for Target, UCL, UWL, LCL & LWL for mean Mean range, UCL , UWL, LCL & LWL for range

Stop

Interpreting Control Chart

The control chart gets divided in three zones.
Zone - 1 If the plotted point falls in this zone, do not make any adjustment, continue with the process. Zone - 2 If the plotted point falls in this zone then special cause may be present. Be careful watch for plotting of another sample(s). Zone - 3 If the plotted point falls in this zone then special cause has crept into the system, and corrective action is required.

Zones for Mean Control Chart

Zone - 3 Zone - 2 Action Warning Continue

UCL UWL Target

Sample Mean

Zone - 1 Zone - 1 Zone - 2

Continue Warning Action

LWL LCL

Zone - 3

Sample Number

Process Control Chart Factors

Control Limit UCL Factor for Ranges Factor for Sample (Range Averages (Subgroup) Charts) (Mean Charts) Size (D4) (A2) (n)
LCL Factor for Ranges (Range Charts) (D3)

Factor for Estimating Sigma ( = R/d2) (d2)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308

3.267 2.575 2.282 2.115 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777

0 0 0 0 0 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.223

1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078

Process Data Example:

Sample Number 1 2 3 4 25
X Values

Select 25 small samples (in this case, n = 4) Find X and R of each sample. The X chart is used to control the process mean. The R chart is used to control process variation.

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6 5

7
3 8

6
9 8

7
6 6

5
28 7 Total 150

Sum 20 24 32 24 X R

75

5-31

X and R Charts Factors

n A2 D3 D4 d2

2 3 4

1.880 1.023 0.729

3.267 2.575 2.282

0 0 0

1.128 1.693 2.059

1 4 6 5 5 Sum 20 X 5 R 2 Values

Sample Number 2 3 4 25 7 6 7 3 9 6 8 8 6 6 9 5 24 32 24 28 6 8 6 7 5 3 2 3

Total 150 75

5-32a

X and R Limits
n A2 D3 D4 d2

2 3 4

1.880 1.023 0.729

3.267 2.575 2.282

0 0 0

1.128 1.693 2.059

X = 150 / 25 = 6 R = 75 / 25 = 3 A2R = 0.729(3) = 2.2 UCLX = X + A2R = 6 + 2.2 = 8.2 LCLX = X - A2R = 6 - 2.2 = 3.8 UCLR = D4R = 2.282(3) = 6.8 LCLR = D3R = 0(3) = 0

1 4 6 5 5 Sum 20 X 5 R 2 Values

Sample Number 2 3 4 25 7 6 7 3 9 6 8 8 6 6 9 5 24 32 24 28 6 8 6 7 5 3 2 3

Total 150 75

5-32b

X and R Chart Plots

n A2 D3 D4 d2

2 3 4

1.880 1.023 0.729

3.267 2.575 2.282

0 0 0

1.128 1.693 2.059

X = 150 / 25 = 6 R = 75 / 25 = 3 A2R = 0.729(3) = 2.2 UCLX = X + A2R = 6 + 2.2 = 8.2 LCLX = X - A2R = 6 - 2.2 = 3.8 UCLR = D4R = 2.282(3) = 6.8 LCLR = D3R = 0(3) = 0

1 4 6 5 5 Sum 20 X 5 R 2 Values Mean

Sample Number 2 3 4 25 7 6 7 3 9 6 8 8 6 6 9 5 24 32 24 28 6 8 6 7 5 3 2 3

Total 150 75

UCL X = 8.2 X = 6.0 = 3.8 LCL X

Range

UCL R = 6.8

R = 3.0 LCL R = 0
5-32

Example: Xbar chart Control Limits by xbar

A quality control manager took five samples (S1, S2, S3, S4, S5), each with four observations, of the diameter of shafts manufactured on a lathe machine. The manager computed the mean of each sample and then computed the grand mean. All values are in cm. Use this information to obtain 3-sigma (i.e., z=3 ) control limits for means of future times. It is known from previous experience that the standard deviation x of the process is 0.02 cm.
Observation 1 2 3 4 S1 12.11 12.10 12.11 12.08 S2 12.15 12.12 12.10 12.11 S3 12.09 12.09 12.11 12.15 S4 12.12 12.10 12.08 12.10 S5 12.09 12.14 12.13 12.12

Xbar

12.10

12.12

12.11

12.10

12.12

Example of Control Limits Calculations using xbar

12.10 12.12 12.11 12.10 12.12 12.11 5

x and

0.02 (given). Note that sample size n 4.

n 0.02 0.01 4

Hence x

Upper controllimit : UCL x z x 12.11 3 0.01 12.14 Low er controllimit : LCL x z x 12.11 3 0.01 12.08 w here x

Standard deviation of distribution of sample means x

Processstandard deviation and n Sample size.

Control Limit Factors

Sales Size

Factor for Xbar limits

Factor for R LCL

Factor for R UCL

n
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

A2
1.88 1.02 0.73 0.58 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.43 0.31 0.29 0.27 0.25 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.20 0.19 0.19 0.18

D3
0 0 0 0 0 0.08 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.26 0.28 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.36 0.40 0.41

D4
3.27 2.57 2.28 2.11 2.00 1.92 1.86 1.82 1.78 1.74 1.72 1.69 1.67 1.65 1.64 1.62 1.61 1.60 1.59

Xbar Control Limits by Rbar

Observation 1 2 3 4 S1 12.11 12.10 12.11 12.08 S2 12.15 12.12 12.10 12.11 S3 12.09 12.09 12.11 12.15 S4 12.12 12.10 12.08 12.10 S5 12.09 12.14 12.13 12.12

Range R

0.03

0.05

0.06

0.04

0.05

R Average of sample ranges R 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.046 5

Sample size n 4, therefore A2 0.73 from table Hence, Upper/Lower Control Limits are UCL x A2 R 12.11 0.73 0.046 12.14 LCL x A2 R 12.11 0.73 0.046 12.08

Range (R) Chart helps control Precision

20 15 10 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

UCL

Range

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Sample #

LCL

Average Range R = 10.1 kg Standard Deviation of Range = 3.5 kg Control Limits: 10.1 + 3 3.5 = [20.6, 0] Process here is in control (i.e., precision is stable)

Range Control Chart Control Limits

The controlchart used to monitor process dispersion or precision is the R - chart. Upper controllimit, UCL R D 4 R Lower controllimit, LCL R D 3 R where D 3 and D 4 are obtained from the Control Limit Factors table.

Observation

S1 12.11 12.10 12.11 12.08 12.10 0.03

S2 12.15 12.12 12.10 12.11 12.12 0.05

S3 12.09 12.09 12.11 12.15 12.11 0.06

S4 12.12 12.10 12.08 12.10 12.10 0.04

S5 12.09 12.14 12.13 12.12 12.12 0.05

Example: R chart Limits

1 2 3 4 Xbar
Range R

R Average of sample ranges 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.046 5

n 4. Therefore D3 0.00 and D4 2.28 from table. Hence, Upper / Lower Control Limits are UCL R D4 R 2.280 .046 0.105 LCL R D3 R 0.000 .046 0.00

Defect Control For Attributes

p Charts Calculate percent defectives in sample c Charts Count number of defects in item

Use of p-Charts
When observations can be placed into two categories.

Good or bad
Pass or fail Operate or dont operate

When the data consists of multiple samples of several observations each

Control Limits for pChart

Control chart for attributes, used to monitor the proportion of defectives in a process. Upper controllimit, UCLp p z p Lower controllimit, LCL p p - z p wherefrom Binomial distribution, p(1 p) p n and p is the nominal fraction of defectives in the process. If p is unknown,it can be estimated as p from history. The estimate, p, replaces p. Sometimes LCL is negative due to approximate formula. Use LCL 0.

The Normal Distribution still applies

95% 99.74% -3 -2 -1 =0 1 2 3

p Chart Data
Sample number
Sample size Number of defective items found in sample Fraction defective in sample

1 n #def p 50 2 .04

2 50 4 .08

3 50 0 0

4 50 3 .06

25 50 2 .04

Total

1250
50 1.00

5-33a

p Chart Calculations

p=

S #def

Sn

=p

Sample number
p(1-p) n .04(.96) 50 n #def p 1 50 2 .04 2 50 4 .08 3 50 0 0 4 50 3 .06 25 50 2 .04 Total

3 P = 3 =3

1250
50 1.00

= 0.083 UCL P = p + 3 P = .04 + .083 = .123 UCL P = p - 3 P = .04 - .083 = 0

UCL P = 0.123

p = 0.04

can't be negative

LCL P = 0
5-33

Example:

p chart data:
Sample # Number of Defectives 10 9 8 11 12 8 13 11 9 10 8 11

A QC manager counted the number of defective nuts produced by an automatic machine in 12 samples. Using the data shown, construct a control chart that will describe 99.74 % of the chance variation in the process when the process in control. Each sample contained 200 nuts.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Total

120

p Chart Solution

120 0.05 12 200 p (1 p ) n 0.05(1 0.05) 0.015 200

p
z3

Upper controllimit, UCL p p z p 0.05 3 0.15 0.095 Lower controllimit, LCL p p z p 0.05 3 0.15 0.005

Example of p-Chart

0.2 0.18 0.16 Proportion defective 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0 2 4 6 8

14

10

12

16

18

..

Sample number

20

Number of Defects/Unit: c-Charts

Use only when the number of occurrences per unit of measure can be counted; nonoccurrences cannot be counted.
Scratches, chips, dents, or errors per item Cracks or faults per unit of distance Breaks or Tears per unit of area Bacteria or pollutants per unit of volume Calls, complaints, failures per unit of time

c-Chart Controls Defects/Unit

Discrete Quality Measurement: D = Number of defects (errors) per unit of work Examples of Defects: Number of typos/page, errors/thousand transactions, equipment breakdowns/shift, bags lost/thousand flown, power outages/year, customer complaints/month, defects/car...

If
then

n = No. of opportunities for defects to occur, and p = Probability of a defect/error occurrence in each D ~ Binomial (n, p) with mean np, variance np(1-p) Poisson (np) with mean = variance = np , if n is large ( 20) and p is small ( 0.05)

With c = np = average number of defects per unit,

Control limits = c + 3 c

c-Chart Control Limits

Upper controllimit, UCLc c z c Lower controllimit, LCL c c z c where c is the mean and number of defects per unit, and c is the standard deviation. c actually has a Poisson distribution. But for practicalreasons the normal distribution approximation to Poisson is used.

c-Chart Example: Hotel Suite Inspection--Defects Discovered/room

Day Defects Day Defects Day Defects

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2 0 3 1 2 3 1 0 0

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

4 2 1 2 3 1 3 2 0

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Total

1 1 2 1 0 3 0 1

39

Recall c-Chart Limits

Total # defects Process average c # samples Sample standard deviation = c c UCL c + z c LCL c - z c

c Chart for Hotel Suite Inspection

5 4 3
UCL = 5.16

Number of defects

2
1 0 5 10 15 20

c = 39/26 = 1.50 LCL = 0

25 Day

Example of c Chart

A bank manager receives a certain number of complaints each day about the banks service. Complaints for 14 days are given in the table shown. Construct a control chart using threesigma limits.

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Number of complaints 3 6 4 5 4 0 2 5 6 0 3 1 0 3

Total

42

c Chart Solution

42 c 3 14 c 1.73 Upper controllimit, UCL c c z c 3 3 1.73 8.2 Lower controllimit, LCL c c z c 3 3 1.73 0.0 where c is the mean and number of defects per unit. c is the standard deviation. For practicalreasons,normal distribution approximation to Poisson is used.

Control Charts Summary

X-bar and R charts

Variables data Application of normal distribution (by Central Limit Theorem)

p charts

Attributes data (defects per n observations) Application of binomial distribution

c charts

Attributes data (defects per inspection) Application of Poisson distribution

Which Chart to Use?

Summary of SPC
Statistical process control provides simple, yet powerful, for managing process while avoiding process tampering A process 'in control' (i.e.; exhibiting no special cause variation) is ripe for the next stage--breakthrough process improvement A process still burdened with special cause variation is still in the problem-solving stage

10. Interpreting control charts

Interpreting Control Chart

Because the basis for control chart theory follows the normal distribution, the same rules that governs the normal distribution are used to interpret the control charts. These rules include:

- Randomness.
- Symmetry about the centre of the distribution. - 99.73% of the population lies between - 3 s of and + 3 s the centre line. - 95.4% population lies between -2 s and + 2 s of the centre line.

Interpreting Control Chart

If the process output follows these rules, the process is said to

be stable or in control with only common causes of variation present. If it fails to follow these rules, it may be out of

control with special causes of variation present.

special causes must be found and corrected.

These

Interpreting Control Chart

A single point above or below the control limits. Probability of a point falling outside the control limit is less than 0.14%. This pattern may indicate:

- a special cause of variation from a material, equipment, method, operator etc. - mismeasurement of a part or parts. - miscalculated or misplotted data point.

Interpreting Control Chart

One point outside control limit

UCL UWL

Statistics

Target
LWL LCL

3 4 5 Sample Number

Interpreting Control Chart

Seven consecutive points are falling on one side of the centre line. Probability of a point falling above or below the centre line is 50-50. The probability of seven consecutive points falling on one side of the centre line is 0.78% ( 1 in 128) This pattern indicates a shift in the process output from changes in the equipment, methods, or material or shift in the measurement system.

Interpreting Control Chart

Seven consecutive points on one side of the centre line

UCL UWL

Statistics

Target
LWL LCL

3 4 5 Sample Number

Interpreting Control Chart

Two consecutive points fall between warning limit and corresponding control limit. In a normal distribution, the probability of two consecutive points falling between warning limit and corresponding control limit is 0.05% (1 in 2000). This could be due to large shift in the process, equipment, material, method or measurement system.

Interpreting Control Chart

Two consecutive points between warning limit and corresponding control limit

UCL UWL

Statistics

Target
LWL LCL

3 4 5 Sample Number

Interpreting Control Chart

Two points out of three consecutive points fall between warning limit and corresponding control limit. This could be due to large shift in the process, equipment, material, method or measurement system.

Interpreting Control Chart

Two points out of three consecutive points between warning limit and corresponding control limit

UCL UWL

Statistics

Target
LWL LCL

3 4 5 Sample Number

Interpreting Control Chart

A trend of seven points in a row upward or downward demonstrates nonrandomness. This happens when

- Gradual deterioration or wear in equipment. - Improvement or deterioration in technique. - Operator fatigue.

Interpreting Control Chart

Seven consecutive points having upward trend UCL UWL

Statistics

Target
LWL LCL

3 4 5 Sample Number

Interpreting Control Chart

Seven consecutive points having downward trend

UCL UWL
Statistics

Target
LWL LCL

Sample Number