Mechanical Measurements

Applications
ME 302
Chapters # 11,12,14,15 and 16
Chapter 11-Displacement and
Dimensional Measurement
Gauge Blocks
wringling blocks
together to make larger
dimensions.

p
= temperature
coefficient of expansion
of gaged part in ppm/

b
= temperature
coefficient of expansion
of gage block in ppm/

L = L
b
1 Ao
( )
AT
( )
10
6
| |
Ao = o
p
o
b
( )
Linear Variable Differential
Transformers
LVDT For Linear
Displacement Measurements
Measuring Tools
Vernier Calipers; Resol
n
0.001 & acc. 0.001


micrometer, Resolution
of 0.0001


Dial Indicators
Dials for Displacement Measurements
Chapter 12; Strain Measurements

c
a
=
dL
L
~
L
2
L
1
L
1
=
AL
L
1
Metallic Gauges

R =
L
A
=
L
CD
2
If you have a conductor of resistivity , the resistance across that
conductor is

If you strain this conductor axially, its length will increase while its cross
sectional area will decrease. Taking the total differential of R,

dR =
cR
c
d +
cR
cL
dL +
cR
c CD
2
( )
d CD
2
( )
=
1
CD
2
Ld + dL 2L
dD
D
|
\

|
.
|
dR
R
=
dL
L
2
dD
D
+
d

Metallic Gauges

dR/ R
dL/ L
=12
dD/ D
dL/ L
+
d/
dL/ L

dR
R
=
dL
L
2
dD
D
+
d

c
a
=
dL
L
c
L
=
dD
D
v =
c
L
c
a

F
dR/ R
dL/ L
=
dR/ R
c
a
=1+ 2v +
d/
dL/ L
For most strain gauges, v = 0.3. If the resistivity is not a function of
strain, then F only depends on poissons ratio, and F ~ 1.6.
Gage factor
Strain Gauge

v =
lateral strain
axial strain
=
c
L
c
a

F
dR/ R
dL/ L
=
dR/ R
c
a
=1+ 2v +
d/
dL/ L

c =
1
F
AR
R
F and R are supplied by the manufacturer, and we measure R.
Strain Gage Bridge Circuit

Ae
o
e
i
=
AR
1
/ R
4 + 2 AR
1
/ R
( )

c =
1
F
AR
R

Ae
o
=
e
i
Fc
4 + 2Fc
Bridge with 2 strain gages
The bending strain on the top gage is equal
and opposite of the one on the bottom.
Wheatstone Bridge

e
o
= e
i
R
2
R
1
+ R
2

R
4
R
3
+ R
4
|
\

|
.
|
make R
2
= R
4
= R

e
o
= e
i
R
R
1
+ R

R
R
3
+ R
|
\

|
.
|
e
o
= e
i
R
R
1
+1
R
R
3
1
|
\

|
.
|
e
o
e
i
= R
1
R
1

1
R
3
|
\

|
.
|
Multiple Gauge Bridge
Most strain gauge measurement systems allow us to make 1, 2, 3 or all 4
legs of the bridge strain gauges. There are many reasons to do this that
we will talk about now.
Going back to our fundamental bridge equations from chapter 6,

E
o
= E
i
R
1
R
1
+ R
2

R
3
R
3
+ R
4
|
\

|
.
|
Say that unstrained, all of these have the
same value. If they are then strained,
the resultant change is E
o
is

dE
o
=
cE
o
cR
i
i=1
4

dR
i
E
o

Multiple Gauges
Make the following assumptions:
All gauges have the same nominal resistance (generally true)
All gauges have matched gauge factors (must be purchased as set)

Then:


AE
o
E
i
=
F
4
c
1
c
2
+c
4
c
3
( )
E
o

Chapter 13; Force Measurements
Torque & Power Measurements
Torque T = FR
Power P = eT
Chapter 14 Pressure
Measuring pressure is also very common and can be accomplished
very cheaply or very accurately (not usually both). We are going to
discuss several sensor types that are available.
Cheap
Rugged, fast
Accurate
Static and Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic Pressure = Total Pressure - Static Pressure
Use of Manometers
Deadweight Testers
Elastic Pressure Transducers
Bourdon Tube Gauge
Pressure Measurements in a
Moving Fluid

Chapter 15 Flow Measurements

Obstruction Meters

P
1
P
2

=
V
2
2
V
1
2
2g
c

Q
ideal
=V
2
A
2
=
A
2
1 A
2
/ A
1
( )
2
| |
1/ 2
2g
c
P
1
P
2
( )

Rotameter or Area meter

Q= A
w
C
2gu
f

f

w
( )
A
f

w




(

(
(
1/ 2
A
w
=
t
4
|
\

|
.
|
D+ by
( )
2
d
2
| |
2% full scale
Vortex Shedding Meters

Q= K
1
e
K
1
~
td
3
4St
Pitot probe errors
Thermal Anemometry
Particle Image Velocimetry
PIV
Chapter 16 Temperature
Measurements
The manner in which a thermometer is calibrated needs to correspond
to how it used. Under normal circumstances, you can get accuracy
from 0.2 to 2C.
Thermometry based on thermal expansion
Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Bimetalic Thermometers
If you take two metals with different thermal expansion coefficients
and bond them together, they will bend in one direction if the
temperature rises above the temperature at which the boding was done
and in the other if it gets less.
Resistance Temperature Detectors
RTD

R
1
R
2
=
R
3
+ r
1
R
RTD
+ r
3

R
RTD
= R
3
+ r
1
r
3

R = R
0
1+ A T T
0
( )
| |
Thermistors

R = R
0
e
| 1/T1/T
0
( )
Usually made of a
semiconductor and have
the following properties:
Much larger dR/dT than
RTDs, so more sensitive
Rugged
Fast Response
16.5 Thermoelectric
Temperature Measurement
In this section, we will learn about perhaps the most important
temperature measuring technique--Thermocouples.
Electromotive Force
Thermoelectric Effects
Seebeck Generates voltages across two dissimilar materials
when a temperature difference is present.
Peltier Moves heat through dissimilar materials when
current is applied.

Thermocouples
Thermocouples measure the
difference in temperature between
two points. One of those points at a
known temperature.
Error Sources in Temperature
Measurements
Conduction: Your probe can conduct heat to/from the environment
to/from your desired measurement location
Analysis of Conduction Error

q
x+dx
q
x
= hPdx T(x) T

| |

u = T T

q = kA
dT
dx
m =
hP
kA

d
2
u
dx
2
m
2
u = 0
u x
( )
u
w
=
coshmx
coshmL
u 0
( )
u
w
=
T 0
( )
T

T
w
T

=
1
coshmL
T 0
( )
T

=
T
w
T

coshmL
L
P/A = 4/D for round
16.8 Radiative Temperature
Measurements (Pyrometry)

E
b
=oT
4
Temperatures greater than 500C
o = 5.6710
-8
W/m
2
K
4

Total Radiation Pyrometry

q =o T
A
4
T
B
4
( )
The radiative heat transfer between
two ideal bodies A and B