Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Objectives
To be able to:
define the term radioactive decay use the terms parent nuclide and progeny correctly list the types of ionizing radiation & their properties state the quantities & units used in the measurement of radiation describe decay mechanisms in terms of changes to the parent nuclide & the types of radiation emitted use the chart of the nuclides to predict progeny resulting from radioactive decay define the terms half-life & decay constant
Objectives (cont) define the terms activity & becquerel relate the becquerel to curie and convert from one to the other calculate the amount of activity of a nuclide remaining after a specific period calculate the half-life of a nuclide given sample data use the chart of nuclides to describe decay chains and series describe the sources of both natural & artificial radionuclides
Radioactive Decay
Spontaneous changes in the nucleus of an unstable atom Results in formation of new elements (progeny) Accompanied by a release of energy, either particulate or electromagnetic or both
Radioactive Decay
Ionizing Radiation
Any particle or ray which has sufficient energy to remove e s from atoms
eV (electron volt)
Unit of energy:
Alpha Particle ()
consists of 2 p and 2 n tightly bound together
4 2
He emitted w/ a well-defined energy which is characteristic of the particular radionuclide from w/c it was emitted usually emitted by heavy nuclei elements, e.g. U, Ra
Beta Particle ()
an e w/c is ejected from the nucleus of the radionuclide at high speed the proton remains in the nucleus & the e is emitted has a small mass (1/1840 u) has a single negative charge are emitted w/ a distribution of energies up to a max. energy w/c is dependent on the particular radionuclide
Gamma Rays ()
em radiation w/c come from the nucleus of an atom as a result of radioactive decay
em radiation consists of packets of energy (photons) w/c are transmitted in the form of waves at the speed of light - includes non-ionizing radiation, e.g. radiowaves, microwaves, heat, visible light, & uv
have the highest energy of all em radiation no mass & no charge Energy released are well defined & characteristic of the emitting radionuclide
Energy Spectrum
Short wavelength = high energy
IONIZING RADIATION
Positrons (+)
is similar to an electron w/ the same mass but an opposite (+) charge it comes from a proton w/c has changed into a neutron & positron the neutron stays in the nucleus & the positron is ejected at high speed
X - rays
electromagnetic radiation with no mass & no charge produced when atomic e - s undergo a change in orbit
Neutrons
particles found in the nucleus of the atom
neutron
Using the chart of the nuclides to find decay modes the way in w/c decay occurs is different for each particular radionuclide & their decay modes differ in both the particles produced & the energy of the emitted particle or ray provides information on the radioactive decay modes and energies use to find both stable & unstable nuclides
Isotopes
equal number of protons and neutrons
There are many isotopes. Most have more neutrons than protons. Some are stable but most are unstable (radioactive).
N>Z
- The closer the nuclide to the line of stability, the more stable it is
Alpha Emission
Emission of a highly energetic helium nucleus from the nucleus of a radioactive atom Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too low Results in a decay product whose atomic number is 2 less than the parent and whose atomic mass is 4 less than the parent Alpha particles are monoenergetic
Ra-226 decays by alpha emission When Ra-226 decays, the atomic mass decreases by 4 and the atomic number decreases by 2 The atomic number defines the element, so the element changes from radium to radon
226Ra 88
222Rn
86
+ 4He
2
Beta Emission
Emission of an electron from the nucleus of a radioactive atom ( n p+ + e-1 ) Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too high (i.e., a surplus of neutrons) Beta particles are emitted with a whole spectrum of energies (unlike alpha particles)
Beta Spectrum
Gamma Ray Emission Monoenergetic radiations emitted from nucleus of an excited atom following radioactive decay
Gamma radiation
Isomeric Transition
process whereby a metastable radionuclide emits a gamma ray thus removing excess energy from the nucleus metastable radionuclide is one which has excess energy in the nucleus, e.g., 99mTc. also called isomer
99 99m
IT
42
Mo
43
Tc +
99
Tc +
43
Positron Decay
15 8
15 7
Electron Capture
X-Ray Production
electron fills vacancy Electron ejected
Characteristic x-rays
Internal Conversion
another process w/c removes excess energy from the nucleus; an alternative to gamma ray emission excess energy is being transferred to an orbital e- from the inner shells of the atom These ejected electrons are called Auger electrons and have very little kinetic energy Electron & x-ray are emitted instead of a gamma ray
Internal Conversion
Also called K Capture Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too low
Photon Emission
Change in N
Comments
Alpha
Beta Positron Electron Capture Gamma
Heavy nuclei
Excess neutrons Excess protons
-2
+1 -1
-2
-1 +1
Alphas Monoenergetic
Beta Energy Spectrum Positron Energy Spectrum K-Capture; Characteristic X-rays Emitted Gammas Monoenergetic Ejects Orbital Electrons; characteristic x-rays and Auger electrons emitted
Excess protons
-1
+1
Excess energy
Internal Conversion
Excess energy
Types of radiation
Ionizing radiation (IR) Particles Alpha Beta Neutron Electromagnetic Gamma & X-ray Non-ionizing radiation (NIR) Electromagnetic Visible light Microwave Radiofrequency Extremely low frequency
Lasers in a classical concert
Decay Parameters
Physical quantities w/c describe the way in w/c radionuclide decays:
N = N0 e -T
where:
T - the elapsed time N - the number of radioactive nuclei remaining after the elapsed time
Activity
A = N
or
A = A0e-T
= 0.693/T1/2
where T1/2 is half-life
Half-life (T1/2)
The time it will take for the activity of the radioactive source to decrease to one-half of its original value The activity of a source is dependent on the half-life of the particular radionuclide Each radionuclide has each characteristic half-life T= T1/2 N = N0 / 2 A = A0 / 2
Half-Life and Decay Constant The relationship between half-life and decay constant is:
T =
0.693
Half-life
Radionuclide Cesium-137 Americium-241 Cobalt-60 Half-life 30.17 y 433 y 5.25 y Application Industrial gauging, medical therapy Industrial gauging Industrial gauging, radiography, medical therapy Medical diagnosis/therapy
Iodine-131
8.1 d
Iodine-125
60 d
Medical diagnosis/therapy
Half-Life
Activity
Indicates the number of radionuclides disintegrating per second (dps or s-1) The SI unit is the becquerel (Bq) 1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second
Becquerels to Curies
1 Bq = 2.7 x 10 -11 Ci 1 kBq = 2.7 x 10 -3 Ci 1 MBq = 2.7 x 10 -5 Ci = 27 Ci 1 GBq = 2.7 x 10 -2 Ci = 27mCi 1 TBq = 2.7 x 10 Ci = 27 Ci
Examples
1. Cesium -137 source has an activity of 20 mCi. This is equivalent to: a) Bq, b) MBq, c) GBq 2. A radioactive source has an activity of 800 MBq. Convert this to: a) mCi, c) Ci
Radioactive Decay
Activity (A)
A = A 0 e - T
disintegration time
time (t)
Radioactive Decay
The amount of activity A remaining after n half-lives is given by A Ao = 1 2n
Calculating Activity
A=
where:
A is the activity at time, T A0 is the initial activity
A0
2n
n = T/T1/2
Examples
1.
Co-60 has an activity of 5.55 GBq as of Feb. 19, 2000. What was its activity last May 19, 2008? (T1/2= 5.27 yrs.) Cs- 137 source used in mining industry has an activity of 740 MBq as of March 30, 1990. What will be its activity on Dec. 30, 2008? ( T1/2 = 30 yrs.)
2.
Sources of IR
Natural sources
Cosmic radiation Terrestrial radiation
Natural sources
Background Radiation
Natural sources
Background Radiation
Cosmic radiation contributes to the background radiation on earth. The earths atmosphere provides shielding from most of the cosmic radiation.
U-238 Th-232
Rn-222 Rn-220
Terrestrial Nuclides
Nuclide
226Ra
Half-life
1,600 yr
Natural Activity
16 Bq/kg in limestone and 48 Bq/kg in igneous rock
222Rn
40K
Noble gas; average annual air concentrations in US range from 0.6 to 28 Bq/m3 1.28 x 109 yr 0.037 to 1.1 Bq/g in soil
3.82 days
Background Radiation
the uranium series, beginning with U-238 the thorium series, beginning with Th-232 the actinium series, beginning with U-235
Once upon a time there was also a neptunium series, which originated with 241Pu, that has a half-life of only 14 years. The only remaining member of this series is 209Bi with a half-life of 2 x 1018 years.
Nuclide
235U
Half-life
7.04 x 108 yr 4.47 x 109 yr
Natural Activity
0.711% of all natural uranium 99.275% of all natural U; 0.5 to 4.7 ppm total U in common rocks
238U
232Th
Th-232
Th-228
6.1 h
1.4 x 1010 y
Ac-228
1.9 y
Ra-224
3.7 d
5.8 y
Ra-228
Rn-220
56 s
Po-212
61 m
Po-216 0.15 s
Bi-212
11 h
300 ns
Pb-212
61 m
Pb-208
3.1 m
(stable)
Tl-208
238U
Nuclide
U-238 Th-234 Pa-234
series
Energy (MeV)
beta
0.193, 0.103 2.31
Half-life
4.51 x 10 9 y 24.10 days 1.175 min
alpha
4.18
Gamma (Photons/trans)
0.092(0.04), 0.063(0.03) 1.0 (0.015), 0.076(0.0063), I.T. 0.068 (0.0059)
U-234
Th-230 Ra-226 Rn-222 Po-218
2.48 x 105 y
8.0x 104 y 1,622 y 3.825 d 3.05 m
4.763
4.685 4.777 5.486 5.998 0.0186(0.030
Pb-214
Bi-214 Po-214 Tl-210 Pb-210
26.8 m
19.7 m 1.64 x 10-4 s 1.32 m 19.4 y 5.505 7.680
0.65
1.65, 3.37
1.96 0.017
Bi-210
Po-210 Pb-206
5.00 d
138.40 d Stable 5.298
1.17
Internal radioactivity
Radioactivity in diet
lead-210 polonium-210 potassium-40
Total Activity of Nuclide Found in the Body 30 pCi (1.1 Bq) 3 pCi (0.11 Bq) 120 nCi (4.4 kBq)
Radium
14C
31 pg
95 g
2.3 pg
1.8 g
Special Units
picocurie nanocurie microcurie millicurie curie kilocurie megacurie 10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 100 103 106
SI Units (37x)
millibequerel becquerel kilobequerel megabequerel gigabequerel terabequerel petabequerel 10-3 100 103 106 109 1012 1015
TOTAL = 2.69
References
1.
2.
Module 2.3, IAEA/ANSTO Distance Learning Project IAEA Lecture Materials for the Post Graduate Educational Course in Radiation Protection and Safe Use of Radiation Sources
Thank you