ALGEBRA

Adreina Shamelia bt Shamsul Anuar Nur Mawaddah bt. Mohd Azhar Nurul Izza Syahira bt. Abd Majid Rowenna Renee Anak Rigen

DEFINITION OF ALGEBRA

Algebra is one of the broad parts of mathematics, together with number theory, geometry and analysis. For historical reasons, the word "algebra" has several related meanings in mathematics, as a single word or with qualifiers. As a single word without article, "algebra" names a broad part of mathematics. As a single word with article or in plural, "algebra" denote a specific mathematical structure.

 Algebra can essentially be considered as doing computations similar to that of arithmetic with non-numerical mathematical objects. Initially, these objects represented either numbers that were not yet known (unknowns) or unspecified numbers (indeterminate or parameter), allowing one to state and prove properties that are true no matter which numbers are involved. For example, in the quadratic equation

a, b,c are indeterminates and x is the unknown. Solving this equation amounts to computing with the variables to express the unknowns in terms of the indeterminates. Then, substituting any numbers for the indeterminates, gives the solution of a particular equation after a simple arithmetic computation.

HISTORY OF ALGEBRA

Arabic word, al-jabr

Study of structure, relation and quantity

Algebra

Restoration, Completion

muqabalah means Reduction/Balancing

Classical Algebra

Abstract Algebra

Egyptian Algebra

Abstract /Modern Algebra

European Algebra after 1500

Arabic/Islamic Algebra

Egyptian Algebra. -Based on Rhind papyrus. -Rhetorical. -Method of false position. -Problems were stated and solved verbally. Babylonian Algebra. -More advanced. -Excellent sexagesimal. -General procedure equivalent to solving quadratic equations. -Quadratic formula. -Some use symbols.

Greek Geometrical Algebra. -Solving problems in geometric form. -Applying deductive reasoning and describing general procedures. Diophantine Algebra. -The father of Algebra. -Introduced the syncopated style of writing equations. -Introduced Arithmetica. -Gives a treatment of indeterminate equations. -Each of the 189 problems in the Arithmetica is solved by a different method. -Accepted only positive rational roots and ignored all others.

Hindu/Indian Algebra. -Successors of the Greeks in the history of mathematics. -Motivated by astronomy and astrology. -Treated zero as a number and discussed operations involving this number. -Introduced negative numbers to represent debts. -Brahmagupta recognized that a positive number has two square roots. -Developed correct procedure for operating with irrational numbers. -Did not recognize square roots of negative numbers. Arabic/Islamic Algebra. -Improved the Hindu number symbols and idea of positional notation. -Contributed first of all the name, Hisab al-jabr w-al muqabala. -They could solve quadratic equations, recognizing two solutions, possibly irrational, but usually rejected negative solutions. -Rhetorical.

European Algebra after 1500. -Zero had been accepted as a number and irrationals were used freely. -Renaissance mathematics was to be characterized by the rise of algebra. -Subsequent efforts to solve polynomial equations of degrees higher than four by methods. Chinese Algebra. -Oldest Chinese mathematical documents. -Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, Sea-Mirror of the Circle Measurements, Magic Squares, and Precious Mirror of the Four Elements.

Abstract/Modern Algebra. -Various sorts of mathematical objects (vectors, matrices, transformations, etc.) -Scope of algebra was expanded to the study of algebraic form and structure. -Peacock was the founder of axiomatic thinking in arithmetic and algebra. (Euclid of Algebra) -Gibbs developed algebra of matrices. -Peano created an axiomatic treatment of the natural numbers in 1889.

TOPICS OF ALGEBRA

The Language of Algebra Real Numbers Solving Linear Equations Graphing Relations and Functions Analyzing Linear Equations Solving Linear Inequalities Solving Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities Polynomials Factoring Quadratic and Exponential Functions Radical Expressions and Triangles Rational Expressions and Equations Statistics Probability

Algebra in Nature
Fibonacci Numbers

When we look a Fibonacci Numbers, we can quickly see the pattern. 1, (1+0) 1, (1+1) 2, (1+2) 3, (2+3) 5, (3+5) 8, .... Many flower species have been found that produce petals that follow this sequence. For example: Enchanter's Nightshade flowers = 2 petals Lilies = 3 petals Wild Geranium = 5 petals Delphinium = 8 petals Corn Merigold = 13 petals Also, pineapple scales and pine cones spiral in two different directions. The number of spirals are Fibonacci numbers. Pineapple = 5 & 8, 8 & 13 Pine cones = 5 & 8, 8 & 13

Finite Space
Finite Space The packing industry has surely spent much time and effort trying to find the best was to pack products into boxes for shipment. The goal usually is to allow for the least amount of wasted space and hold maximum capacity. All along they had to do was turning to bee keeping.

Bees have chosen what appears to be the most efficient and economically shaped packing container, a regular hexagonal prism. When calculating the densities of this tessellation and comparing it with those of a square prism or an equilateral triangular prism, you will find the bee made the correct choice by sticking with the regular hexagonal prism

APPLICATIONS OF ALGEBRA

Astronomy
Astronomer use math all the time. One way it is used is when we look at objects in the sky with a telescope. The camera that is attached to the telescope basically records a series of numbers those numbers might correspond to how much light different objects in the sky are emitting, what type of light, etc. In order to be able to understand the information that these numbers contain, we need to use math and statistics to interpret them. Another way that astronomers use math is when they are forming and testing theories for the physical laws that govern the objects in the sky. Also, in addition to flying and maneuvering a spacecraft, astronauts are often involved in conducting scientific experiments aboard the spacecraft, which would involve math in other ways too.

Biology
Algebraic biology applies the algebraic methods of symbolic computation to the study of biological problems, especially in genomics, proteomics, analysis of molecular structures and study of genes. Computations in the field of biology are done in order to simulate experiments and/or calculate features of a biologic process or structure. Such as for example calculating mathematical predictions of intercellular features, cellular interaction, body reaction to chemicals and analysis of heritage. In recent years, methods from algebra, algebraic geometry, and discrete mathematics have found new and unexpected applications in systems biology as well as in statistics, leading to the emerging new fields of "algebraic biology" and "algebraic statistics." Furthermore, there are emerging applications of algebraic statistics to problems in biology. This year-long program will provide a focus for the further development and maturation of these two areas of research as well as their interconnections. The unifying theme is provided by the common mathematical tool set as well as the increasingly close interaction between biology and statistics.

Geometry
Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics which, as the name suggests, combines techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry. Initially a study of polynomial equations in many variables, the subject of algebraic geometry starts where equation solving leaves off, and it becomes at least as important to understand the totality of solutions of a system of equations, as to find some solution; this leads into some of the deepest waters in the whole of mathematics, both conceptually and in terms of technique. The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, lemniscates, and Cassini ovals, form one of the best studied classes of algebraic varieties. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve relative position of different curves and relations between the curves given by different equations.

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