Magnetic circuit

The path of magnetic flux is

called magnetic circuit
Magnetic circuit of dc machine
comprises of yoke , poles,
airgap, armature teeth and
armature core
Flux produced by field coils
emerges from N pole and cross
the air gap to enter the
armature tooth. Then it flows
through armature core and
again cross the air gap to enter
the S pole
Yoke
Flux Path
Pole Body
Armature Core
N
S S
N
Magnetic Circuit of 4-Pole DC Machine
h
pl

h
pl

l
y

l
c

Let B
g
Max. flux density in the core
K
g
- Gap contraction factor
l
c
Length of magnetic path in the core
l
y
Length of magnetic path in the yoke
d
s
- Depth of the slot
d
c
- Depth of core
h
pl
- Height of field pole
D
m
Mean diameter of armature
When the leakage flux is neglected magnetic circuit of a DC machine consists
of following:
i. Yoke
ii. Pole and pole shoe
iii. Air gap
iv. Armature teeth
v. Armature core

Magnetic circuit
Total MMF to be developed by each pole is given by the sum of
MMF required for the above five sections.
MMF for air gap AT
g
=800000 B
g
K
g
l
g
MMF for teeth AT
t
=at
t
X d
s
MMF for core AT
c
=at
c
X l
c
/2
MMF for pole AT
p
= at
p
X h
pl
MMF for yoke AT
y
= at
y
X l
y
/2
at
t ,
at
c
, at
p
, at
y
- are determined B-H curves
l
c
= D
m
/P = (D 2d
s
d
c
)/P
l
y
= D
my
/P = (D+ 2l
g
+ 2h
pl
+d
y
)/P
AT total =AT
g
+ AT
t
+ AT
c
+ AT
p
+AT
y


Design of field system
Consists of poles, pole shoe and field winding.
Types:
Shunt field
Series field
Shunt field winding have large no of turns made of thin
conductors ,because current carried by them is very low
Series field winding is designed to carry heavy current
and so it is made of thick conductors/strips
Field coils are formed, insulated and fixed over the field
poles
Factors to be considered in design:
MMF/pole &flux density
Losses dissipated from the surface of field coil
Resistance of the field coil
Current density in the field conductors
Design of field system
Let ,
AT
fl
-MMF developed by field winding at full load
Q
f
- Copper loss in each field coil(W)
q
f
- Permissible loss per unit winding surface for normal temperature rise(W/m
2
)
S
f
- Copper space factor
- Resistivity (O m)
h
f
- Height of winding(m)
d
f
- Depth of winding(m)
S - Cooling surface of field coil(m
2
)
L
mt
- Length of mean turn of field winding(m)
R
f
- Resistance of each field coil (ohms)
T
f
- Number of turns in each field coil
A
f
- Area of each conductor of field winding(m
2
)
I
f
- Current in the field winding (A)

f
- Current density in the field winding(A/mm
2
)




Design of field system
Tentative design of field winding
Cooling surface of the field winding, S=2L
mt
h
f
-- (1)
Permissible copper loss in each field coil, S
qf
=2L
mt
h
f
q
f
-- (2)

Area of X-section of field coil=h
f
d
f
-- (3)

Area of copper in each section=S
f
h
f
d
f
-- (4)

i.e, T
f
a
f
=S
f
h
f
d
f
-- (5)
Copper loss in each field coil, Q
f
=I
f
2

R
f
=I
f
2

(T
f
L
mt
)/a
f






i.e., Copper loss o o
f
2

(Square of the current density)
Design of field system
( )
( )
Copper of Volume
6
2
2
2
2
o =
o =
|
|
.
|

\
|

o =
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
f f
mt f f f f
f
mt f
f f
f
mt f
f f
Q
) ( L a T Q
a
L T
a
a
L T
I Q
To have temperature rise within the limit, the copper loss should be equal to the
permissible loss.
Using Eqns. (2) & (6),
2L
mt
h
f
q
f
=o
f
2

L
mt
(S
f
h
f
d
f
) =>


MMF per metre height of field winding


Design of field system
) (
d S
q
f f
f
f
7
2

= o
(8) - - 10 height meter per MMF
10 2
2
2
4
8
f f f
f f f
f f
f f
f
f f f
f
f f f f
f
f f f
f
f f
f
fl
d S q
] m . [
d S q
d S
d S
q
d S
h
h d S
h
T a
h
T I
h
AT
=
O =

= o =
o
=
o
=
= =

Normal values:
Permissible loss, q
f
-700W/m
2
Copper Space factor, S
f
:
Small wires: 0.4
Large round wires: 0.65
Large rectangular conductors: 0.75
Depth of the field winding, d
f
:

Design of field system
Armature Dia (m) Winding Depth (mm)
0.2 30
0.35 35
0.5 40
0.65 45
1.00 50
1.00 and above 55
Height of field,




Total height of the pole,
h
pl
=h
f
+h
s
+ height for insulation and curvature of yoke
where,
h
s
- Height of the pole shoe (0.1 to 0.2 of the pole height)
Design of field system
f f f
fl
f
fl
f
d S q
AT
h
AT
h
4
10
(8), Eqn Using
height meter per Turns Ampere

=
=
Design of shunt field winding
Involves the determination of the following information
regarding the pole and shunt field winding
Dimensions of the main field pole ,
Dimensions of the field coil ,
Current in shunt field winding,
Resistance of coil,
Dimensions of field conductor,
Number of turns in the field coil ,
Losses in field coil.
Dimensions of the main field pole
For rectangular field poles
o Cross sectional area, length, width , height of the body
For cylindrical pole
o Cross sectional area, diameter, height of the body

Area of the pole body can be estimated from the knowledge
of flux per pole , leakage coefficient and flux density in the
pole
Leakage coefficient (C
l
) depends on power output of the
DC machine
Bp in the pole 1.2 to 1.7 wb/m
2

p
= C
l
.
A
p
=
p
/B
p
When circular poles are employed, C.S.A will be a circle
Ap = d
p
2
/4

t = / Ap 4 d
p
Design of shunt field winding
When rectangular poles employed, length of pole is chosen
as 10 to15 mm less than the length of armature
L
p
=L (0.001 to 0.015)
Net iron length L
pi
= 0.9 L
p
Width of pole, b
p
= Ap/L
pi
Height of pole body h
p
= h
f
+ thickness of insulation and
clearance
Total height of the pole h
pl
= h
p
+ h
s
Design of shunt field winding
Field coils are former wound and placed on the poles
They may be of rectangular or circular cross section
depends on the type of poles
Dimensions L
mt
, depth, height, diameter
Depth(d
f
) depends on armature
Height (h
f
) - depends on surface required for cooling the
coil and no. of turns(T
f
)
h
f
, T
f
cannot be independently designed
Design of shunt field winding
L
mt
- Calculated using the dimensions of pole and depth of
the coil
For rectangular coils
L
mt
=2(L
p
+ b
p
+ 2d
f
) or (L
o
+L
i
)/2
Where L
o
length of outer most turn & L
i
length of inner most turn
For cylindrical coils
L
mt
= (d
p
+d
f
)
No of turns in field coil: When the ampere turns to be
developed by the field coil is known, the turns can be
estimated
Field ampere turns on load, AT
fl
= I
f
. T
f

Turns in field coil, T
f
= AT
fl
/I
f

Design of shunt field winding
Power Loss in the field coil:
Power loss in the field coil is copper loss, depends on
Resistance and current
Heat is developed in the field coil due to this loss and it is
dissipated through the surface of the coil
In field coil design , loss dissipated per unit surface area is
specified and from which the required surface area can be
estimated.
Surface area of field coil depends on L
mt
, depth and height of
the coil
Design of shunt field winding
L
mt
estimated from dimensions of pole
Depth assumed (depends on diameter of armature)
Height estimated in order to provide required surface area
Heat can be dissipated from all the four sides of a coil. i.e,
inner , outer, top and bottom surface of the coil
Inner surface area= L
mt
(h
f
d
f
)
Outer surface area = L
mt
(h
f
+ d
f
)
Top and bottom surface area = L
mt
d
f
Total surface area of field coil, S= L
mt
(h
f
d
f
)+ = L
mt
(h
f
+ d
f
)+
L
mt
d
f
+ L
mt
d
f

S= 2L
mt
h
f
+L
mt
d
f
= 2L
mt
(h
f
+d
f
)


Permissible copper loss, Q
f
=S.q
f
[q
f
-Loss dissipated/ unit area]

Design of shunt field winding
Substitute S in Q
f
,
Q
f
= 2L
mt
(h
f
+d
f
).q
f

Actual Cu loss in field coil=I
f
2
R
f
=E
f
2
/R
f

Substituting R
f
=(L
mt
T
f
)/ a
f
,
Actual Cu loss in field coil=E
f
2
.a
f
/(L
mt
T
f
)

Design of shunt field winding
f mt
f
2
f
f f f mt
T L
a E
) d (h q 2L = +
f f f
f f
d h S
coil field
of section - X of Area
X factor space Copper
coil Field
in area Conductor
a T
conductor field
of section - X of Area
X turns No.of
coil field
in area Conductor
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
)
`

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
)
`

Procedure for shunt field design

Step1 : determine the dimensions of the pole. Assume a
suitable value of leakage coefficient and B = 1.2 to 1.7 T

p
= C
l
.
A
p
=
p
/B
p
When circular poles are employed, C.S.A will be a circle
A
p
= d
p
2
/4 : d
p
=(4A
p
/) When rectangular poles
employed, length of pole is chosen as 10 to15 mm less than
the length of armature
L
p
=L (0.001 to 0.015)
Net iron length L
pi
= 0.9 L
p
Width of pole = A
p
/L
pi


Step 2 : Determine L
mt
of field coil
Assume suitable depth of field winding
For rectangular coils
L
mt
=2(L
p
+ b
p
+ 2d
f
) or (L
o
+L
i
)/2
For cylindrical coils L
mt
= (d
p
+d
f
)
Step 3: Calculate the voltage across each shunt field coil
E
f
= (0.8 to 0.85) V/P
Step 4 : Calculate C.S.A of filed conductor
A
f
= L
mt
AT
fl
/E
f
Step 5:Calcualate diameter of field conductor
d
fc
=(4a
f
/)
Diameter including thickness d
fci
= d
fc
+ insulation thickness
Copper space factor S
f
= 0.75(d
fc
/d
fci
)
2



Procedure for shunt field design
Step 6 : Determine no. of turns (Tf) and height of coil (hf)
They can be determined by solving the following two
equations 2L
mt
(h
f
+ d
f
) = E
f
2
a
f
/L
mt
T
f

T
f
.a
f
= S
f
.h
f
.d
f
Step 7 : Calculate R
f
and I
f
: R
f
= T
f
. L
mt
/a
f
I
f
= E
f
/R
f
Step 8 : Check for
f

f
= I
f
/ a
f


f
not to exceed 3.5A/mm
2
.
If it exceeds then increase a
f
by 5% and then proceed
again

Procedure for shunt field design
Step 9 : Check for desired value of AT
AT
actual
= I
f.
T
f
AT
desired
- 1.1 to 1.25 times armature MMF at full load
When AT
actual
exceeds the desired value then increase the
depth of field winding by 5% and proceed again.

Procedure for shunt field design
Check for temp rise:
Actual copper loss = I
f
2
R
f
Surface area = S = 2L
mt
(h
f
+ d
f
)
Cooling coefficient C = (0.14 to 0.16)/(1 + 0.1 V
a
)
u
m
= Actual copper loss X (C/S)
If temperature rise exceeds the limit , then increase the depth
of field winding by 5% and proceed again.
Design of Series Field Winding
Step 1: Estimate the AT to be developed by series field coil,
AT /pole = (I
z
. (Z/2))/P
For compound m/c, AT
se
= (0.15 to .25) (I
z
. Z)/2P
For series m/c, AT
se
= (1.15 to 1.25) (I
z
. Z)/2P
Step 2: Calculate the no. of turns in the series field coil,
T
se
= AT
se
/I
se
(Corrected to an integer)
Step 3: Determine cross sectional area of series field conductor,
a
se
= I
se
/
se

Normally,
se
- 2 to 2.3 A /mm
2

Step 4 : Estimate the dimension of the field coil
Conductor area of field coil = T
se
.a
se
Also Conductor area of field coil = S
fse
.h
se
.d
se
When circular conductors are used
S
fse
= 0.6 to 0.7
For rectangular conductors, S
fse
depends on thickness and
type of insulation
On equating above two expressions,
T
se
.a
se
= S
fse
.h
se
.d
se
h
se
= (T
se
.a
se
)/(S
fse
.d
se
)
Design of Series Field Winding
Design of commutator and brushes
Commutator and brush arrangement are used to convert the
bidirectional current to unidirectional current
Brushes are located at the magnetic neutral axis ( mid way
between two adjacent poles)
The phenomenon of commutation is affected by resistance of
the brush , reactance emf induced by leakage flux, emf induced
by armature flux.

Classification of commutation process
1. Resistance commutation
2. Retarded commutation
3. Accelerated commutation
4. Sinusoidal commutation
Commutator is of cylindrical in shape and placed at one end of the
armature
Consists of number of copper bars or segments separated from one
another by a suitable insulating material of thickness of 0.5 to 1mm
Number of commutator segments = no. of coils in the armature
Materials used :
Commutator segments: Hard Drawn Copper or Aluminum Copper
Insulation :Mica, Resin Bonded Asbestos
Brushes :Natural Graphite, Hard Carbon , Electro Graphite, Metal Graphite



Design of Commutator and brushes
Design formulae
1. No. of commutator segments, C = u.S
a
where, u coils sides/slot
S
a
no. of armature slots
2. Minimum no. of segments = E
p
/15
3. Commutator segment pitch =
c
= D
c
/C
where,
Commutator Diameter D
c
60% to 80% of diameter of armature
c 4mm
4. Current carried by each brush I
b
= 2I
a
/P for lap winding
I
b
= I
a
for wave winding
5. Total brush contact area/spindle A
b
= I
b
/
b
6. Number of brush locations are decided by the type of winding
Lap winding: No of brush location = no. of poles
Wave winding : No of brush location =2



Design of Commutator and brushes
7. Area of each individual brush should be chosen such that , it does not carry
more than 70A
Let ,
a
b
Contact area of each brush
n
b
Number of brushes / spindle
Contact area of brushes in a spindle, A
b
= n
b
. a
b

also a
b
= w
b
.t
b
Ab = n
b
. w
b
.t
b
Usually, t
b
= (1 to 3)
c
w
b
= A
b
/ n
b
. T
b
= a
b
/t
b
8. L
c
depends on space required for mounting the brushes and to dissipate the
heat generated by commutator losses
L
c
= n
b
(w
b
+ C
b
) + C
1
+ C
2
where, C
b
- Clearnace between brushes (5mm)
C
1
- Clearance allowed for staggering of brushes (10mm, 30mm)
C
2
Clearance for allowing end play (10 to 25 mm)


Design of Commutator and brushes
9. Losses :
Brush contact losses: depends on material, condition, quality of
commutation
Brush friction losses
Brush friction loss P
bf
= p
b
A
B
.V
c
Coefficient of friction
p
b
-Brush contact pressure on commutator (N/m
2
)


A
B
- Total contact area of all brushes (m
2
)
A
B
=P A
b
(for lap winding)
= 2 A
b
(for wave winding)
V
c
Peripheral speed of commutator (m/s)
Design of Commutator and brushes
Design of Interpoles
Interpoles: Small poles placed between main poles
Materials Used: Cast steel (or) Punched from sheet steel
without pole shoes
Purposes:
To neutralize cross magnetizing armature MMF
To produce flux density required to generate rotational voltage in the
coil undergoing commutation to cancel the reactance voltage.
Since both effects related to armature current, interpole
winding should be connected in series with armature
winding
Average reactance voltage of coil by Pitchelmayers Equation
is, E
rav
= 2T
c

ac V
a
.L .
Inductance of a coil in armature =2T
c
2
.L .


Normally, Length of interpole = length of main pole
Flux density under interpole, B
gi
= ac. .(L/L
ip
)
where, L
ip
- length of interpole
In general,
B
gi
= 2 I
z
. Z
s
. (L/L
ip
). (1/V
a
.T
c
).



MMF required to establish B
gi
= 800000B
gi
.K
gi
.l
gi

Design of Interpoles
)
`

+
)
`

=
reaction armature
come over to required mmf

B establish
to required mmf
ATi
gi
winding) ng compensati with (
2P
.Z I
) - (1
winding) ng compensati without (
2P
.Z I
reaction armature
overcome
to required MMF
z
z
=
=

Losses and efficiency :
1. Iron Loss - i)Eddy current loss ii) Hysteresis loss
2. Rotational losses - Windage and friction losses
3. Variable or copper loss
Condition for maximum efficiency :
Constant Loss= Variable Loss

I
A
conductor, interpole
of section - X of Area
A/mm 4 to 2.5 ,
winding interpole
in density Current
I
AT
turns No.of
i
a
ip
2
i
a
i
=
)
`

=
)
`

=
Design of Interpoles