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Advance High Voltage Engineering

LECTURE 8

(PART-II)

Measurement of High-Voltages

Prof Dr. Suhail A. Qureshi.


Elect. Engg. Deptt. UET, LHR
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 1

Measurement of High-Voltages 3. Uniform Field Gaps

For the measurement of A.C, D.C and Impulse voltage.


Sphere gap, though extensively used for high-voltage measurements, produces a field which is uniform over only a very limited region of the gap namely along the axis of the gap and it is not possible to ensure that sparking would always take place along the uniform field region.
Rogowski presented designs for profiles for electrodes giving uniform field for voltages up to 600 KV.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 2

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
It has been shown theoretically that the field between two equal spheres is very nearly uniform for values of spacing/radius ratio less than about 1/10 and the accurate theoretical interpretation of the experimental results is possible only under this condition. If the spark takes place in a uniform field, the sparkover voltage could be defined by an equation of the form:

V = AS+B S
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 3

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
Where A and B are constants, and V is the sparkover voltage for a gap length S.

This limitation of the sphere gap led to the development of uniform-field gap and one of the early designs was put forward by Stephenson. Fig:16 shows the design of the electrodes used, for measurement of 50 c/s alternating voltages up to 400 kV (peak). The portion AC is plane and is of a diameter equal to or greater than the maximum spacing S. The radius from A to B and C to D should be greater than 10S.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 4

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

Fig: 16.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 5

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
To avoid sparking at the edges, the curvature from B to E and D to F should be of continuously increasing magnitude. Under this arrangement, it was found experimentally that sparking always occurred in the uniform-field region of the gap for all spacings up to 16 cm under normal atmospheric conditions.
From a theoretical analysis of the experimental results, Stephenson has shown that the breakdown voltage and spacing are related, at 25C and 760 mm Hg by S is the gap length in centimetres.

v = 24.4S+7.50 S kV(peak)
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 6

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

It has also been shown that the sparking potential is a function of both the spacing S and the gas density , so that the density correction factor at a given density varies with the spacing, and the above relation is accordingly modified as: V = 24.4S + 7.50 (S)1/2 KW (Peak) [Stephenson)

Where e is the gas density which is unity at normal atmospheric conditions.


"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 7

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
Bruce has also studied the characteristics of uniform-field electrode for power frequency alternating voltages up to 315 kV. A half contour of one of the electrodes used by Bruce is shown in Fig.17.

The flat portion AB is of a diameter not less than the maximum gap length to be used. BC is a sine curve, based on the axes OB and OC, such that XY = OC sin (BX/ BOX/2). CD forms the arc of circle with centre at O.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

Fig: 17

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
In order to maintain the uniformity of the field at different gap lengths, different pairs of electrodes were used. The diameters of the flat surfaces were 2.25, 4.4 and 7.8 in. for the measurement of voltages up to 140, 280 and 420 kV respectively. The corresponding overall diameters of the electrodes were 4.5, 9.0 and 15.0 in. Using these electrodes for voltages from 9 to 315 kV(peak), Bruce has shown that the breakdown voltage of a gap of length S cm in air at 25C and 760 mm Hg is within 0.2 % of the value given by the relation

V = 24.22S + 6.08 S kV (peak).


"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

Bruce
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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
The influence of nearby objects on the breakdown has also been studied by Bruce and he recommended that the clearance between the edges of the electrodes and the nearest earthed conductor in the plane of the gap should be more than four times the maximum gap length. The clearance between the edges of the electrodes and a discharging conductor should' be not less than ten times the maximum spacing. To account for the air density the above expression becomes V = 24.22S + 6.08 (S)1/2
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 11

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
The effect of humidity on uniform field gaps was studied by Ritz who observed an increase of about 2 % in the breakdown of a 1 cm air gap when the water vapour pressure varied from 10 to 25 mm Hg. He suggested a relationship of the following form.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

Kohrmann observed a greater humidity effect and found that the breakdown voltage of 0.5-cm gap increased by 2.4 % when the water vapour pressure was increased from zero to 10 mm Hg. Kuffel has studied the effect of humidity for a number of gap lengths. Fig: 18 illustrates the percentage increase in breakdown voltage when humidity was varied from 0 to 17 mm Hg, and it is seen that the breakdown voltage for gaps up to 2 cm increases by 4-5.5% at 17 mm Hg. The change in voltage is not linearly related to either the humidity for a given gap length, or the gap length for a given humidity.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 13

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

Fig: 18

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
The voltage change is, however, nearly linearly related to the humidity between the range 4-17 mm Hg when the gap length is constant. Between these humidity limits the voltage increase is greater for longer gaps, giving 0.19 %/mm Hg for a 0.5-cm spacing and 0.27 %/mm Hg for a 2-cm gap. The increase in breakdown voltage with the quantity of water vapour may be explained partly by considering the higher electron attachment in moist air.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
The problem has been discussed by Kuffel and an estimation of the increase in the breakdown voltage gave a reasonable agreement with the observed values over a range of gaps from 0.5 to 2.0 cm. An increase with gap length in the voltage change for a given humidity change also follows from electron attachment considerations. The ionization coefficient varies more rapidly with the field gradient than does the attachment coefficient. The field gradient at breakdown decreases with increasing gap length and consequently the influence of the attachment coefficient on the ionization efficiency will be greater for longer gaps.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 16

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

Prasad and Craggs have recently shown that the rate of increase of the attachment coefficient is considerably greater than that of the ionization coefficient as the partial pressure of water vapour is increased. In addition, the secondary ionization coefficient was observed to decrease with increasing water vapour pressure. In consequence the breakdown voltage in creases with increasing humidity.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
Holzer and Ritz studied uniform field breakdown under alternating voltages using the electrodes with the profile suggested by Rogowski. The relation between the breakdown voltage and gap length 8 in cm, at atmospheric conditions, obtained by Holzer is

V = 23.85S+ 7.85 S kV (peak), Holzer and that given by Ritz is V = 24.558+6.66 S kV (peak). Ritz
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 18

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

Results obtained by various workers are given in Table:7 and the values obtained by sphere-gap measurements are also inserted for comparison. The discrepancies observed in the results of these measurements are likely to be due to different test conditions and the accuracy with which the voltages were measured.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3.
Fig: 17.

Uniform Field Gaps

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

From the experimental results available, it may be assumed that within the limits of experimental accuracy no difference has been detected between the d.c. and a.c. breakdown voltages.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

The impulse breakdown characteristics of the uniformfield gap has not yet been studied extensively.

Holzer made a study with impulse voltages of different rate of rise and observed an increase of about 4% in the breakdown voltage for a 12-cm gap above the static breakdown voltage when an impulse voltage of a rate of rise of 9.3X 108 kV /s was used.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

At smaller gaps the difference became less. Also when the rate of rise was reduced to 1.6 X 106 kV/s the impulse values became equal to static breakdown values. Cooper made measurements by applying recurrently a voltage impulse of 1 sec front duration and studied the time intervals between the application of the impulse and the instant of breakdown.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
Rectangular impulses of negative polarity were applied to a parallel-plate electrode gap at a rate of 400 impulses/so The maximum amplitude of the voltage was about 25 kV. The impulse voltages applied to the gap were measured by means of a cathode-ray oscillograph in conjunction with a resistance potential divider.

The results of his finding are summarized in Table. 8 which compares the effect of irradiation on breakdown voltage. Irradiation of the gap was obtained by inserting a metal capsule containing 0.2 mg of radium inside the highvoltage electrode. "Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 24

Measurement of High-Voltages
3.
Table: 8.

Uniform Field Gaps

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

The results in Table 5.8 show that for gaps greater than 0.2 cm long, irradiation produced practically no effect on the breakdown voltage.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
Comparing the uniform-field geometry and the sphere gap as a standard method of measuring high voltages, it is readily seen that the former has certain advantages over the latter. The breakdown voltage of the uniform-field electrode can be calculated accurately over a wide range of gap lengths while there is no accurate expression by means of which the sparking voltage is calculable for sphere gaps for all conditions to an accuracy better than several per cent.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 27

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps
The air-density correction factor is a mean value for the whole range of spacing of the sphere gap while in the case of uniform-field electrodes it is a function of both the gas density and the gap length.
The sphere gap calibration depends on whether the arrangement is symmetrical or with one sphere earthed. The uniform-field, however, does not show any such effect and the breakdown voltage remains the same whether both electrodes are insulated or one electrode is earthed.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 28

Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

For uniform-field gaps the clearance to nearby objects is much smaller than is the case of sphere gaps. The field in the central portion of the uniformfield gap is well shielded against the effect of nearby objects as compared with sphere gap.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
3. Uniform Field Gaps

In spite of a superior performance of the uniform-field gap, it has not yet replaced the sphere gap as a standard method of voltage measurement. The serious practical disadvantages are the need for very accurate mechanical finish of the electrodes and extremely careful parallel alignment.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 30

Measurement of High-Voltages 4. Ammeter in Series with High Impedance


H.V

I
R V =IR

The effective value of high voltages can be obtained by measuring the current flowing through a circuit containing a high series resistance. Neglecting the impedance of the instrument, the product of the current and the series resistance gives the unknown voltage.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 31

Measurement of High-Voltages
4. Ammeter in Series with High Impedance

A milliammeter of the dynamometer or thermal type is commonly used in such measurements; however, moving-coil instruments can be used for direct voltages provided the superimposed a.c. ripple is less than 10 %. The accuracy of measurements depends upon the design of the high-voltage resistor. These resistors should have negligible resistance temperature coefficient and should be free from corona discharges. Also leakage along the supporting structures should be small. With alternating voltages, the stray Capacitance of the resistor sections to earth has to be considered.)
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 32

Measurement of High-Voltages
4. Ammeter in Series with High Impedance

Wire-wound resistances have often been used for highvoltage measurements and one such design is due to Taylor. One hundred units ( M, 1W) made of Ni-Cr wire were arranged in twenty sets of 5 units each. Each set was mounted in a spun aluminium corona shield with an insulating lid made of hard rubber or pyrex glass. A spring contact was provided between each resistance set and the aluminium cover ofthe next set.
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Measurement of High-Voltages
4. Ammeter in Series with High Impedance

The resistance units were wound noninductively and the temperature coefficient was 0.0152 %/C. The temperature and resistance characteristics of the assembly were determined under the operating conditions for voltages up to 1.3 kV / resistor and the results are reproduced in Fig. 19. The accuracy of measurement was claimed to be 0.01%.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
4. Ammeter in Series with High Impedance

Fig: 19.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
4. Ammeter in Series with High Impedance

The length of the wire required becomes very considerable for resistances of 100 M and above-even for the finest gauge of the coil remained constant within 0.1 % over long periods. The coil formers are mounted on an ebonite rod to form a stack shown in Fig.20, and placed in a container 18 in. high X10 in. diameter.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
4. Ammeter in Series with High Impedance

Fig: 20.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 37

Measurement of High-Voltages
4. Ammeter in Series with High Impedance

Corona formation on the surface of the resistance coil is thereby prevented. A 100-M unit suitable for 100 kV working voltage is shown in Fig.21. The high-voltage end of the resistor is fitted with a large "hat" which, together with the vertical helical configuration of the resistor unit, prevents concentration of electric field and corona formation.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
4. Ammeter in Series with High Impedance

Fig: 21
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 39

Measurement of High-Voltages
5. Series Capacitance Voltmeters
A method suitable for determining the peak and r.m.S. value of an alternating voltage is to measure the current flowing through a capacitor connected to the high-voltage source. The current is measured by a rectifier milliammeter circuit. The circuit of a peak voltmeter described by Chubb and Fortescue is given in Fig. 22. Neglecting the rectifier impedance, the instantaneous current is: i = C(de/dt) where e is the instantaneous voltage and C is the capacitance. The total charge through each rectifier per cycle is:
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 40

Measurement of High-Voltages
5. Series Capacitance Voltmeters

Fig: 22.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
5. Series Capacitance Voltmeters dQ dv i ,i c ,eEsin wt ,de wECostwt dt dt
Q idtC de2 fCE
1 f 4 3 f 4

cos2 fdt 2CE

3/4 f 1/4 f
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Measurement of High-Voltages
5. Series Capacitance Voltmeters

Where e = E sin 2ft.

The charge per second or the mean current through the instrument is then 2CEf, where f is the frequency of the test voltage. The peak voltmeter, therefore, measures the total voltage swing from positive to negative peak of an alternating voltage. The chief source of error is the imperfect rectifier characteristic.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
5. Series Capacitance Voltmeters
In the above treatment, the integration is taken between the time limits when de/dt has one sign only (positive for one rectifier and negative for the other), the peak voltage cannot be measured if there are subsidiary peaks in the voltage wave. This method is only applicable when the + ve and - ve peak heights are equal. This method is used extensively for measuring the peak values of power frequency voltages up to about 1000 kV (r.m.s.), and accuracies of the order of 1 or 2 parts in 1000 can be achieved.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 44

Measurement of High-Voltages
5. Series Capacitance Voltmeters

The Chubb-Fortescue peak voltmeter described earlier suffers from two serious drawbacks. These are frequency dependence of the indication and the error introduced by heavy discharges on the h.v. system; a less important shortcoming is the error introduced by multiple peaks in the voltage waveform.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
5. Series Capacitance Voltmeters

The maximum voltage range of such a voltmeter is limited by, the peak inverse voltage of the rectifier. Baker has presented the design of an instrument which includes rectifiers in a feedback loop, and is to a great extent independent of the rectifier characteristic. The instrument is particularly applicable in the measurement of h.v. in the presence of corona discharge.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages 6. Potential Dividers


Low impedance

Z1 Z2

V2

Dividers for Direct and Alternating Voltages.


Potential divider is, basically, a series combination of a high and low impedance. The voltage to be measured is applied across the combination and the drop across the low-impedance section is measured by means of an indicating instrument.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 47

Measurement of High-Voltages 6. Potential Dividers

The design of a potential divider is, essentially, the design of the high-impedance section and high-voltage resistances described in Section 5.4 (Ammeter in series with High-Impedance) can be used as a resistance potential divider.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
6. Potential Dividers
A resistance potential divider for the measurement of up to 1.25 million volts d.c. was described by Kunkte. The resistance 1500 M-ohms was made from 2000 units of carbon resistances 0.75 M-ohms each. Across a tap on the low voltage end was connected a 1500-V electrostatic voltmeter. The divider ratio was adjusted at 1:1000 and the voltmeter scale was marked to read directly 1500 kV. The resistor was immersed in oil and a pump was used to maintain a continuous circulation of oil. Under full-load conditions the resistance value was within 1.5 %. The accuracy of measurement was about 1 %.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
6. Potential Dividers
A very precise potential divider for measurement of direct current voltages of about 50 kV with an accuracy of 0.01% has been designed by Rymer and Wright. The effect of leakage currents was eliminated partly by the use of a comprehensive system of shielding circuits supplied by an auxilliary network across the main h.t. supply and partly by the use of a Wheatstone bridge circuit which enables the potentiometer ratio to be measured under operating conditions, while the high potential is applied. The apparatus has been used for precise measurement of the voltage in experiments on electron diffraction.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 50

Measurement of High-Voltages
6. Potential Dividers

The elaborations required in the proper design of an a.c. high-voltage resistor have led to the development of capacitors which can be used as a high impedance element, either in a bridge circuit or in a potential divider. The advantages of a standard air-capacitor over a highvoltage resistor are the relative simplicity of its construction, the ease with which it may be shielded from stray capacitance effects, and the absence of heating.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages 7. Dividers for Impulse Voltages

A divider for recording high transient voltages may consist of resistors or capacitors or combinations of both. The essential requirement is that the wave shape of the voltage to by measured should be faithfully reproduced on the oscillograph with a reduction ratio which can be accurately known.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
7. Dividers for Impulse Voltages
The chief sources of error common to all types of dividers are:

1)
2)

3)

Residual inductance in any resistance or capacitive element. Stray capacitance: (a) from any section of the divider to the high voltage lead, (b) from any section of the divider to ground and (c) between sections of the divider. Impedance drop in the connecting lead between the divider and the test object.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 53

Measurement of High-Voltages
7.
4)

Dividers for Impulse Voltages

5)

Impedance drop in the ground return lead from the divider resulting from extraneous ground currents flowing in this lead. Oscillations in the divider circuit caused by capacitance from divider high-voltage terminal to ground and lead inductance.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
7. Dividers for Impulse Voltages

The simplest type is a resistor divider which is often acceptable for recording the standard impulse of 1/50 sec wave. When the duration of the surge is less than I sec a resistor divider may give large errors due to stray capacitance. The error is a function of the product of the resistance of the high-voltage arm and the earth capacitance.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
7. Dividers for Impulse Voltages
One of the simplest types of a divider is a plain resistance potentiometer connected to a cable as shown in Fig. 24. If the high-voltage resistance has no distributed capacity and no self-inductance, the above arrangement will respond satisfactorily to all transients. The possible sources of error in a cable type divider such as shown in Fig. 24 are as follows: (1) the terminal resistor R Z (surge impedance), due both to errors in adjustment and to the fact that the concentric cable is not a true surge impedance invariant to changes of wave shape; (2) capacitance of the measuring circuit;

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
7. Dividers for Impulse Voltages

Fig: 24.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 57

Measurement of High-Voltages 8. Mixed Divider

It can take the form of either parallel or series arrangement of capacitors and resistors. The equivalent network of the parallel arrangement is that in which C: is infinite and its response can be obtained by neglecting the self-inductance L. From the response terms, too lengthy to be included here, it can be seen that the arrangement behaves as a capacitor divider with fast transients and as a resistor divider with slow transients.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
8. Mixed Divider

Fig: 25.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
8. Mixed Divider

Fig: 26.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages 9.
H.V

Delay Cable

Z1 Delay Cable

Z2

CRO

The low-voltage arm of a potential divider is connected to the oscillograph deflection plates by means of a coaxial cable.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 61

Measurement of High-Voltages
9. Delay Cable

The length of the cable varies between a few meters and 100-200 m, depending upon the time delay required between the operation of the generator and the arrival of the signal to the plates. The two main types are the air-cored cable and the polythene cable. In air-cored cable, the surge voltage travels approximately at the speed of light and a cable of 100 m length gives a delay of, 0.333 sec which is sufficient for the C.R.O. time base to be triggered.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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Measurement of High-Voltages
9. Delay Cable

In a polythene cable, the velocity of propagation would be slower, being inversely proportional to the square root of the permittivity, and therefore. a shorter length of cable can be used to provide the same time delay. The delay cable causes distortion and attenuation in the recorded wave and a study of the response of air-spaced and polythene cable shows that, in order to avoid appreciable errors, air-spaced cable should be used on fast surges.
"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi" 63

Measurement of High-Voltages
9. Delay Cable

An ideal cable is one which has no losses and whose surge impedance does not vary with frequency. However, all cables have some attenuation and their surge impedance varies with frequency. The sources of cable losses are the resistance of the central conductor and outer sheath and conductance and dielectric hysteresis in the insulating medium used.

"Prof Dr. Suhail Aftab Qureshi"

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