Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Early Philosophy of Matter

Some early philosophers believed that matter consisted of tiny, indivisible particles atomos theory Leucippus and Democritus Other philosophers believed that matter was infinitely divisible Plato and Aristotle Because there was no experimental way of proving who was correct, the best debater was the person assumed correct, i.e., Aristotle
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Scientific Revolution For the next 150+ years, observations about nature
were made that could not easily be explained by the infinitely divisible matter concept

In the late 17th century, the scientific approach to

understanding nature became established

Law of Conservation of Mass

In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor
destroyed

Total mass of the material before and after a reaction must be

equal: total mass of reactants = total mass of products

Antoine Lavoisier 1743-1794

Law of Conservation of Mass

In a reaction of sodium with chlorine to make sodium chloride

only whole atoms combine and atoms are not changed or

destroyed in the process

the mass of sodium chloride made must equal the total mass
of sodium and chlorine atoms that combine together

7.7 g Na + 11.9 g Cl2

19.6 g NaCl

Law of Definite Proportions

All samples of a given compound, regardless of their source or how they were prepared, have the same proportion of their constituent elements
decomposition of 18 grams of water (H2O) always gives 16 grams of oxygen (O) and 2 grams of hydrogen (H). An 8:1 ratio. decomposition of 17 g of ammonia (NH3) always gives 14 g of nitrogen (N) and 3 g of hydrogen. A 4.7:1 ratio.

Joseph Proust 1754-1826

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Law of Multiple Proportions

When two elements (call them A and B) form two different compounds, the masses of B that combine with 1 g of A can be expressed as a ratio of small, whole numbers

John Dalton 1766-1844

Law of Multiple Proportions

Carbon combines with oxygen to form two different compounds, carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

CO contains 1.33 g of oxygen for every 1.00 g of carbon . CO2 contains 2.67 g of O for every 1.00 g of C oxygen mass ratio mass of O combining with 1 g of C in CO 2.67 g mass of O combining with 1 g of C in CO2 = 1.33 g =2
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Daltons Atomic Theory

Dalton proposed a theory of matter based on it having
ultimate, indivisible particles to explain these laws

1. Each element is composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms

2. All atoms of a given element have the same mass and other properties that distinguish them from atoms of other elements 3. Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form molecules of compounds 4. In a chemical reaction, atoms of one element cannot change into atoms of another element they simply rearrange the 9 way they are attached

Practice Decide if each statement is correct according to Daltons model of the atom Copper atoms can combine with zinc atoms to make gold atoms

Water is composed of many identical molecules that have one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms

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Cathode Ray Tube

Glass tube containing metal electrodes from which almost all the air has been evacuated When connected to a high voltage power supply, a glowing area is seen emanating from the cathode

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J.J. Thomson
Believed that the cathode ray was composed of tiny particles with an electrical charge
He designed an experiment to demonstrate that the rays were particles by measuring the amount of force it takes to deflect their path a given amount

Similar to measuring the amount of force it takes to make a turn

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Thomsons Experiment
Investigating the effect of placing an electric field around tube 1. charged matter is attracted to an electric field 2. lights path is not deflected by an electric field
filled with low pressure gas
electrically charged plates (+) +++++++++++

Cathode
()

Anode
(+)

-------------

()

Power Supply

+
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Fancy Cathode Ray Tube

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Thomsons Results
cathode rays are made of tiny particles The particles have a negative charge because the beam always deflected toward the + plate The amount of deflection is related by the charge and the mass of the particles Every material tested contained these same particles The charge:mass ratio of these particles was 1.76 x 108 C/g The charge:mass ratio of the hydrogen ion is +9.58 x 104 C/g

the particle is almost 2000x smaller than a hydrogen atom! 15

Thomsons Conclusions, contd

Thomson believed that these cathode ray particles were therefore the ultimate building blocks of matter

These cathode ray particles became known as electrons

Electrons are tiny, negatively charged particles found in all atoms

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Millikans Oil Drop Experiment

ionizing radiation

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Millikans Conclusions
Millikan determined that an electron (e) has a charge of 1.60 x 1019 C He combined his results with the ones from Thompsons experiments to determine the mass of an electron e charge charge to mass ratio

e mass =

1.60 x 1019 C 28 g = = 9.10 x 10 1.76 x 108 C/g

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A New Theory of the Atom

Because the atom is no longer indivisible, Thomson proposes a new model of the atom to replace the first statement in Daltons Atomic Theory
rest of Daltons theory still valid at this point Thomson proposes that instead of being hard, marble-like unbreakable spheres, the way Dalton described it, atoms actually had an inner structure
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Thomsons Plum Pudding Atom

atom structure contains many negatively charged electrons electrons are held in the atom by their attraction to a positively charged electric field within the atom atoms are neutral so there has to be some positive charge Thomson assumed there were no positively charged pieces because none showed up in the cathode ray experiment

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Radioactivity
In the late 1800s, Henri Becquerel and Marie Curie discovered that certain elements would constantly emit small, energetic particles and rays. [uranium, radium and polonium] These energetic particles could penetrate matter

Marie Curie 1867-1934

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Radioactivity
Ernest Rutherford discovered that radioactive elements emit three different kinds of emissions
alpha, a, rays stream of particles with 4x the mass of H atom and a + charge
beta, b, rays made of particles with a mass ~1/2000th H atom and charge gamma, g, rays are energy rays high energy photons

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Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment

Rutherford also wanted to know whether Thomsons idea about the atom was correct. So he devised an experiment in which he shot some of the newly discovered positively charged alpha decay particles at a very thin piece of gold foil most of the particles went through the foil, but some particles where scattered.

Polonium-214

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Rutherfords Results
Interpretation
nucleus containing protons and neutrons volume occupied by electrons

incoming a-particles

nucleus

Plum Pudding Atom

Nuclear Atom

The structure of an atom

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Gold Foil Experimental Results

alphaparticles are fairly large and positively charged most go through the foil some are scattered some are even reflected back This means with the nuclear atom model atoms are mostly empty space with small hard positively charged centers
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Discovery of the Neutron

James Chadwick did essentially the same experiment as Rutherford using Beryllium foil and discovered the neutron. 1 amu = 1.66054 x 1024 g

Atoms are composed of positive protons and neutral neutrons in the center (nucleus) held together by nuclear forces surrounded by a fuzzy cloud of electrons 26

Elemental Symbols: Atomic Numbers and Mass Numbers

The number of protons defines an element and is called the atomic number (Z) the number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus is called the mass number (A)

Each element is identified by a unique chemical symbol, a one or two letter abbreviation of its name with the first letter capitalized and when needed the second lower case.
A Z

mass number element symbols atomic number

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Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number (Z), but different atomic masses (A).

Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.

A Z

11 6

12 6

13 6

14 6

All carbon atoms have 6 protons.

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Atomic Mass
A mass spectrometer can measure atomic and molecular masses with great accuracy.

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Average Atomic Mass

The atomic weight is the average atomic mass of all of the isotopes of a particular element. atomic S [(isotope mass) x (fractional isotope abundance)] = weight over all the isotopes naturally occurring carbon is composed of 98.93% carbon-12 and 1.07% carbon-13 with masses of 12.0 amu (exactly) and 13.00335 amu, respectively. (12.0) x (0.9893 amu) + (0.0107) (13.00335 amu) = 12.01 amu
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Periodic Table

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alkali metals

Periodic Table

alkaline earth metals

noble gases (inert gases) halogens chalcogens

Transition Metals

Lanthanides Actinides
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Molecules and Chemical Formulas

chemical formula tells what type and how many atoms are in a molecule molecule is two or more atoms bonded together a diatomic molecule has only two atoms compound composed of atoms of two or more different elements.

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Molecules and Chemical Formulas

The subscript to the right of an elements symbol tells the number of that elements atoms in one molecule of the compound.
Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only nonmetals.

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Diatomic Molecules
These seven elements occur naturally as diatomic molecules containing two atoms: Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Chlorine Bromine Iodine

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Types of Formulas
Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.

Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound.

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Types of Formulas
Structural formulas show the order in which atoms are bonded. Perspective drawings also show the three-dimensional array of atoms in a compound.

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Ions: Losing or Gaining Electrons

Ions are atoms or molecules which have gained () or lost (+) electrons (+) cations and () anions
sodium Na Na+ + 1e sodium ion

chlorine Cl + 1 e Cl chlorine ion

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Ions

When atoms lose or gain electrons, they become ions. Cations are positive and are formed by elements on the left side of the periodic chart.
Anions are negative and are formed by elements on the right 39 side of the periodic chart.

Ionic Bonds
Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally formed between metals and nonmetals.

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Chemical Packages - Moles

1 Mole = the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of C-12

1 atom of C-12 weighs exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu)

1 mole of C-12 weighs exactly 12 g The number of particles in 1 mole is called Avogadros Number (NA) = 6.0221421 x 1023
anything mol

1 mole of C atoms weighs 12.01 g and has 6.022 x 1023 atoms

the average atomic mass of a C atom is 12.01 amu
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Units From the Periodic Table

The periodic table gives the average atomic mass of carbon as 12.01 amu 1 mole = 6.022 x 1023 carbon atoms 1 amu = 1.6654 x 1024 g 12.01 amu C atom 6.022 x 1023 C atoms 1.6654 x 1024 g mol amu 12.01 g mol this means the periodic table gives units of g/mol or amu
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Relationship Between Moles and Mass

The mass of one mole of atoms is called the molar mass The molar mass of an element, in grams, is numerically equal to the elements atomic mass, in amu
The lighter the atom, the less a mole weighs The lighter the atom, the more atoms there are in 1 g

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Mole and Mass Relationships

1 mole sulfur 32.06 g

1 mole carbon 12.01 g

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