Advanced Power Systems

Electric Generation & Power Industry

Aims of Todays Lecture

Heat engines, steam cycles and efficiencies GTs, CCs, Baseload Plants and LDCs Polyphase synchronous generators Electric industry today (NUGS, IPPs, QFs) Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA, FERC)

Introduction to Distributed Generation Technologies

Polyphase synchronous generators

How did we arrive at the 3 phase standard for generators? What does synchronous mean anyway? First another look back.

History - EM Induction Generators

1831 Michael Faradays Electromagnetic Induction Experiment switch
Soft iron ring

battery
N

First Evolution: DC Generator

Faraday 1831

Second Evolution: AC Generator

Pixii 1832

AC Generator Output

Lenz Law
When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a current whose magnetic field opposes the change which produces it. The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop constant. In the examples below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the induced field acts in the direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.

Lenz Law

synchronous
A fixed-speed machine (generator or motor) that is synchronized with the utility grid to which it is connected To generate 60Hz a two pole generator would need to rotate at 3600 rpm in order to provide synchronous output

Multi-pole machines
Two pole machines have 1 N and 1 S pole on their rotor and their stator (Fig 3.13) Single Phase Four pole machines have 4 poles (rotor: 2 N and 2 S) on both rotor and stator

1revolution fcycles 60s Ns ( p / 2)cycles s min 120 f Ns p

Synchronous machines LM #1
How fast would a generator that is synchronized with the utility grid in France need to rotate to Generate 50Hz if it had four (4) poles?

Finally the 4-pole, 3- Wye synchronous generator

For balanced power input and output

Input from the steam turbine Output to the electric grid/loads

What is the number of poles per phase? What will be the rotation speed of this most common generator in the US? (Fig 3.14 p 122)
Write Your Answer as LM #2

GTs, CCs, Baseload Plants

To overcome Lenzs Law all of these generators require motive horsepower
Gas Turbines Steam Turbines Hydro Turbines

Heat Rate
HeatRate(kJ / kWh) 1(kJ / s) / kW 3600 s / h 3600 kJ / kWh

In the power industry the heat rate is more often expressed in Btu/kWh
HeatRate( Btu / kWh) 3412 Btu / kWh

Typical and Heat Rates

Coal Plant Older =0.3 (HR: 11,375 Bth/kWh) Coal Plant Newer =0.35 (HR: 9,750 Bth/kWh) CT (typical) =0.3 (HR: 11,375 Bth/kWh) CT Newer =0.40 (HR: 8,530 Bth/kWh) STIG =0.45 (HR: 7,580 Bth/kWh) CC =0.50 (HR: 6,825 Bth/kWh) Cogeneration =0.85 (HR: 4,015 Bth/kWh)

Thermal Plant Impacts

Each kWh from 33.3% coal fired plant:
146 kg of Cooling Water raised 10o C 1.09 kg CO2 0.396 kg of Coal consumed Flyash and bottom ash to be disposed of

LDCs
What is a Load Duration Curve? Every load hour of the year (8760 hours of system load data) arranged from the highest demand to the lowest demand A key design tool in determining how to match generation mix with load profiles of the utility company

US Industry structure - utilities

Traditionally given a monopoly franchise In exchange, subject to regulation
State and Federal

Most are distribution only

Many remain vertically integrated (G, T &D) 3200 US electric utilities Four types

US Industry structure - utilities

Investor Owned (IOU)
5%, generate > 2/3 of power

Federally Owned
TVA, BPA, US Army Corps, sell power nonprofit

Other Publicly Owned

Munis, state, 2/3 of this type, <9%

Coops originally set up by REA

US Industry structure nonutilities

Nonutility Generators (NUGs)
Prior to 1940 ~ 20% of power By mid-1970s a small fraction Late 1980s-1990s as regulators changed rules
Some utilities had to sell off their assets Growth of NUGS in some states was significant

By 2001 NUGs were delivering over 25%

Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA,

EPAct, FERC Orders 888 & 2000)

Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935

1929 16 holding companies controlled 80% of US utilities Financial abuses in many large companies Stock Market Crash left many in bankruptcy PUHCA provided regulation and break-up of large HCs

Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978

1973 oil crisis led to large rise in utility retail rates PURPA set up to encourage energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies

Regulatory impacts (PUHCA, PURPA,

EPAct, FERC Orders 888 & 2000)

Energy Policy Act of 1992

Created new entity EWG EPAct set up to begin opening up the grid to allow competitive generators to compete for customers hopefully to drive down costs and prices

FERC Orders 888 & 2000 888 Requires IOUs to publish nondiscriminatory tariffs that
can be applied to all generators/competitors

2000 Calls for the creation of regional transmission

organizations RTOS to control transmission system operation

Industry today (NUGS, IPPs, QFs)

NUG non-utility generator
IPP non-PURPA-regulated NUGs QF meet PURPA requirements for efficiency or renewable energy use

California Meltdown
Open market on wholesale in March 98 First 2 years good prices ($35/MWh) 40% of Californias generation sold August 2000 - $170/MWh ($800/MWh) In 2000 customers paid 5x 1999 prices
Due to low imports of hydro and adjacent power Market manipulation by Enron and 30 others

Californias end of open markets

Wholesale market stays high into 2001 January 01 rolling blackouts ($1500/MWh) By Feb customers had paid more than 99 By May PG&E declares bankruptcy CalPX market shutdown FERC intervenes with price caps (Sum 01)

August 2003 Blackout

MISO in charge of Ohio transmission system was a key player in failure to control isolated reactive power problem and loss of major transmission service in Northern Ohio. >50 million people were out of service for extended period while the grid was restarted Largest widespread blackout in US history Nationally there is a major rethink of deregulation

LM #3
Connect each event with its year:
A) Largest US Blackout B) PURPA C) California Meltdown D) FERC Order 888 E) Public Utility Holding Co Act F) FERC Order 2000 G) Energy Policy Act 1978 2001 2003 1992 1999 1996 1935

Distributed Generation
Economies of Scale Begin a Reversal

Typical Power Generator Output

Large Hydropower Installation 10 GW Nuclear 1,100 MW Coal 600 MW CC Gas Turbine 250 MW Simple Cycle CT 60 - 150 MW Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell - 4,000 kW Wind Turbines 10 1500 kW Fuel Cell (automotive) 60 kW Microturbine 30 kW Residential PEM Fuel Cell 5 kW Residential PV System 3-5 kW

Typical End Use Consumption

Laptop Personal Computer 20 Watts Desktop Personal Computer 100 Watts Residential Household (ave.) 1-2 kW Commercial Customer (ave.) 10 kW Supermarket 100 kW Office Building 500 1,000 kW Large Factory 1 MW Peak Use of Largest Buildings 100 MW

What is Distributed Generation?

Small-scale power generation Typically less than 50 MW Located in the distribution system of a utility Often customer (not utility) owned May include use of waste heat

Cogeneration and CHP

Capturing and using waste heat while generating electricity CHP combined heat and power

HHV and LHV

Often during combustion of a fuel, latent heat is generated. If we include the latent heat in our calculations (i.e., if our furnace or system is able to capture that heat and make it useful) we want to use the higher heating value of our fuel. HHV: high(er) heating value, gross heat of combustion LHV: low(er) heating value, net heat of combustion

HHV and LHV tables

GAS Methane Propane Natural Gas Gasoline No. 4 oil

HHV 23,875 21,669 22,500 19,637 18,890

LHV (in Btu/lb) RATIO 21,495 90% 19,937 92% 20,273 90% 18,434 94% 17,804 94%

Power plant efficiency

= output power / input fuel energy
Large Centralized power stations:
is typically based upon HHV of fuel

Distributed Generation power stations:

is often based upon LHV of fuel

To convert:

HHV

LHV LHV HHV

LHV / HHV example

A small micro-power plant has a fuel input of 12,500 Btu (LHV) per kWh of electricity it generates. Find its LHV and HHV efficiencies if we assume it runs on gasoline: Gasoline LHV/HHV = 0.9378 Efficiency = 3412 Btu/kWh / Heat Rate LHV = 3412 / 12,500 = 27.3% HHV = LHV x LHV/HHV = 27.3% x 0.9378 = 25.6%

LM #4 - You try it
A micro-power plant has a fuel input of 14,500 Btu (HHV) per kWh of electricity it generates. Find its LHV and HHV efficiencies if we assume it runs on methane: Methane LHV/HHV = 0.9003 Efficiency = 3412 Btu/kWh / Heat Rate

Microturbines
Very small gas turbines (NG or waste gas) Typically 500 W to 300 kW Typical Microturbine Components
Compressor Often all on one shaft Turbine P-M generator Combustion chamber Heat exchanger (recuperator)

Leading Manufacturers
Capstone Turbine Corporation
One moving part: common shaft 96,000 rpm C30 - 30 kW unit: LHV = 26%, Heat Rate: 13,100 Btu/kWh C60 - 60 kW unit: LHV = 28%, Heat Rate: 12,200 Btu/kWh

Elliot Microturbines
TA100R - 105 kW unit: LHV = 29%, Heat Rate: 11,770 Btu/kWh 172 kW thermal potential for hot water: TTE > 75%

Elliot Microturbine Application

The Elliot TA 100A produces its full output of 105 kW when burning 1.24 x 106 Btu/hr of natural gas. Its waste heat is used to supplement an existing boiler by raising its temperature from 120 -140 oF. It operates for 8000 hours/year.
A) If 47% of the fuel is transferred to boiler what should flow rate be? B) If boiler is 75% efficient and NG is $6 per MMBtu how much money will microturbine save in displaced fuel? C) If electric costs 8 / kWh what is annual savings? D) If O&M is $1,500 per year what are net savings? E) If microturbine costs $220,000 what is Initial RR and SPB?

LM #5
A) If we can not use the waste heat is it economical to install a microturbine in this application?
(assume you require < 10 yr Simple Payback)

B) What if your electric costs are 11 / kWh? C) What is lowest price electricity can be to still meet your 10 yr simple payback requirement?

Reciprocating IC Engines
Very small piston-driven, 4 stroke ICEs Typically 500 W to 6,500 kW Typical Operation
Intake, Compression, Power, Exhaust Spark ignited (Otto cycle) Compression ignition (Diesel cycle) Multi-fuel: gasoline, natural gas, kerosene, propane, fuel oil, alcohol, waste gas

Advanced Reciprocating Engines

Current design is cheapest of all DGs Efficiencies are good:
Today: electrical = 37-40% Turbocharged: Thermal fuel horsepower
Otto cycle LHV = 41%, HHV = 38% Diesel cycle LHV = 46%, HHV = 44%

ARES Targets: ELECTRIC = 50%, CHP = 80% HRSG can increase overall CHP = 85%

Stirling Engines
Energy is supplied from outside the system External combustion, can run on any heat source Invented in Scotland and patented in 1816 Used quite extensively until early 1900s Eliminated from market by efficient technologies Current efficiencies relatively low: < 30% Size ranges from 1 25 kW No explosions, relatively quiet devices Good match with solar dishes Four states of Transition in Stirling Cycle