Heat transfer:

Heat transfer is defined as the Science which deals with rate of heat
exchange between hot and cold bodies. Hot and cold bodies are called
source and receiver respectively.
These are three different processes by which H.T occurs.
Conduction.
Convection.
Radiation.
Conduction:
If the temperature gradients exist with in a solid body the heat will be
transferred from higher temperature to lower temperature. This
phenomenon is called thermal conduction. The thermal energy may be
transferred by means of electrons which are free to move through the
lattice structure of the material. It may be transferred as vibrational
energy in the lattice of structure.

The control of heat flow at the desired rate is one of the most
important areas of Chemical Engineering
It is a mode of heat transfer in which heat transfer occurs from
source to receiver particle to particle or molecule to molecule .
First we will discuss the Law of conduction. Secondly the steady
state heat conduction where the temperature distribution
within the solid does not change with time, and thirdly, we will
discuss the unsteady state heat conduction where the
temperature distribution does change with time.

Fouriers Law:

Consider a flow of heat through a plane wall of thickness dx as
shown in the figure below.

The wall lower and upper surfaces are assume to be insulated so
that direction of heat flow is at right angle (perpendicular ) to wall.
Assume that left face is hot and right face is cold. Which receives
heat. Fouriers Law states that rate of heat flow Q is directly
proportional to temperature difference AT between the two
surfaces, directly proportional to area A and inversely
proportional to thickness Ax of the wall.



T
1




T
2

Q
d x
Hot Surface Cold surface
Mathematically
A A T
Q --------
A x
Or
K A A T
Q = ----------
A x
In differential form
dQ = K A ( -d T )
d x
term d T is called the temperature gradient.
d x where negative sign indicates that the temperature
gradient is opposite to the heat flow. It shows that heat flow occur from hot
to cold surface.
The negative sign is also due to the decrease of temperature in the direction
of flow. Where K is a constant called thermal conductivity. its units are.

K = Q A x = B tu / hr x ft

= Btu / hr . ft
o
F
A A T ft
2

o
F

M . K . S System .

Q A x = Watt . m = Watt .
A A T m
2

o
C m
o
C
If K has higher values for a material, then material is called
conductor and if the value of K is lower then
the material is called insulator.
Q = ( T
1
T
2
) A
x / k
Where x/k is known as the thermal resistance and k/x is the
transfer co-efficient.

Thermal conductivity





thermal conductivity, k, is the property of a material that
indicates its ability to conduct heat. It appears primarily
in Fourier's Law for heat conduction. First, we define
heat conduction by the formula:

where is the rate of heat flow, k is the thermal
conductivity, A is the total cross sectional area of
conducting surface, T is temperature difference and x is
the thickness of conducting surface separating the 2
temperatures.
Thus, rearranging the equation gives thermal conductivity,


(Note: is the temperature gradient)
In other words, it is defined as the quantity of heat, Q,
transmitted during time t through a thickness x, in a
direction normal to a surface of area A, due to a
temperature difference T, under steady state conditions
and when the heat transfer is dependent only on the
temperature gradient.

Alternately, it can be thought of as a flux of heat (energy per
unit area per unit time) divided by a temperature gradient
(temperature difference per unit length)

Typical units are SI: W/(mK) and English units:
Btuft/(hftF). To convert between the two, use the relation
1 Btuft/(hftF) = 1.730735 W/(mK). [Perry's Chemical
Engineers' Handbook, 7th Edition, Table
1-4]
List of thermal conductivities
This is a list of approximate values of thermal conductivity, k,
for some common materials.

Material

Thermal conductivity
W/(mK)


Cement, Portland
[1]
0.29
Concrete, stone
[1]
1.7
Air 0.025
Wood 0.04 - 0.4
Alcohols and oils 0.1 - 0.21
Silica Aerogel 0.004-0.03
Soil 1.5
Rubber 0.16
Epoxy (unfilled) 0.19
(Nansulate) 0.018
LPG 0.23 - 0.26
Epoxy (silica-filled) 0.30
Water (liquid) 0.6
Thermal grease 0.7 - 3
Thermal epoxy 1 - 7
Glass 1.1
Diamond 900 - 2320
Ice 2
Sandstone 2.4
Stainless steel
[2]
12.11 ~ 45.0
Lead 35.3
Aluminium 237
Gold 318
Copper 401
Silver 429
Problem 1:
Find the heat loss per square meter of surface through a brick wall
0.5m thick when the inner surface is at 400K and the outside is at
300K. The thermal conductivity of the brick may be taken as 0.7 w/mK.
Solution:
A x = 0.5
(T
1
T
2
) = A T = (400 300)
A = 1 m
2

K = 0.7 w/mK
= - K A A T = - K A (T
2
T
1
)
A x A x

Q/A =K ( T1 T2 ) = 0.7 x (400-300)
A x 0.5 m
Q/A = 140 w/m
2

Problem 2:
One face of a copper slab is maintained at 1000
o
F and the other face is
at 200
o
F. How much heat is conducted through the slab per unit area
if the slab is 3 inches thick? The thermal conductivity of copper may be
taken as K 215 Btu/hr.ft
o
F.
Solution:
q = - K A d T
d x

q /A = - K
Ti
T2
dT /
x2
x1
dx
.

q / A = - K T
2
- T
1

x
2
- x
1

T
1
= 1000
o
F Ax = x
2
x
1
= 3/12 ft .
T
2
= 200
o
F
q/A = - 215 (200 - 1000) = 6.88x10
5
Btu/hr. ft
2
3/12
Thermal Resistances in series:

A composite wall made up of three materials
with thermal conductivities K
1
, K
2,
and K
3
with
thicknesses x
1
, x
2
, x
3
and with temperature T
1
,
T
2
, T
3
, and T
4
at the faces as shown in figure
given below.

Conduction of heat through an attached wall. Apply the Fourier's law to
each section assuming
that quantity of heat Q must pass through each area A.

Q = - K
1
A (T
2
T
1
) = K
1
A(T
1
T
2
)
x
1
x
1

Then for first section:
T
1
T
2
= x
1
Q I
K
1
A

Q
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
K
1
K
2
K
3
x
1
x
2
x
3
Second section:
T
2
T
3
= x
2
Q II
K
2
A
For third section:
T
3
T
4
= x
3
Q III
K
3
A
Add all these eq. We will get:
T
1
T
4
= x
1
Q + x
2
Q + x
3
Q
K
1
A K
2
A K
3
A

T
1
T
4
= Q/A (x
1
/K
1
+ x
2
/K
2
+ x
3
/K
3
)


Be written as.
Q = (T1 T4)A = Total driving force
x/K (Total Thermal resistance/area)

Problem:3
A furnace is constructed with 0.20m of fire brick, 0.10m of insulating
brick and 0.20m of building brick. The inside temperature is 1200K
and the outside temperature is 330K. If the thermal conductivities
are

Kf = 1.4, K
I
= 0.21 and K
b
= 0.7 w/m
o
K

Find the heat loss

o
1200K
per unit area
Insulating Building
and the temperature
Fire brick brick brick
at the Junction of the fire

0.20m 0.10m 0.20m
brick

and insulating


brick

K
f
= 1.4 K
I
= 0.21 K
b
= 0.7
330
o
K A = 1m
2




u
= T1 - T4
x
1
/k
1
A
1
+ x
2
+ x
3

K
2
A
1
K
3
A
1


u
= 1200 - 330
0.20 + 0.10 + 0.20


1.4A
1
0.21A
1
0.7A
1



u
/A = 870 = 870
0.143 + 0.476 + 0.286 0.905

= 961 w/m
2


x
1

u
= T
1
T
2

K A
1

T
2
= (1200 - 0.2 x 961) = 1062
o
K
1.4
1

Problem:4
An Industrial furnace wall is constructed of 0.7 ft thick fireclay brick
having K = 0.6 Btu/hr. ft
o
F. This is covered on the outer surface with a
layer of insulating material having K = 0.04 Btu/hr. ft
o
F. The inner most
surface is at 1800
o
F and the outer most is at 100
o
F. The maximum
allow able heat transfer rate for the furnace is 300 Btu/hr. ft
2
.
Calculate the thickness of the insulating material for these conditions.
Solution:

K1 = 0.6 K2 = 0.04 K
1
=0.6 K= 0.04
2


A
x
1
= 0.7 ft
1800
o
F 100
o
F
q = T1 T3

A
x
1
/K
1
+
A
x
2 //K
2



T
1
T
2
T
3
Q /A = 300Btu/hr.ft
2


300 = 1800 100
0.7/0.6
A
x
+ 2


300 = 1
+
A

x
1700 (0.7/.6 0.04)
2
/

0.7 +
A
x
2
= 17/3
0.6 0.04


A
x
2
= (17/3 0.7/0.6) 0.04


A
x
2 =
0.18 ft.
/ 0.04
Problem:5
A flat wall is constructed of a 4.5 inches layer of refractory brick with a
thermal conductivity of 0.08 Btu/h.ft.
o
F. Backed by a 9 inch layer of
common brick of conductivity 0.8Btu/hrft
0
F. The temperature of the
inner face of the wall is 1400
o
F and that of the outer face is 170
0
F.
What is the heat loss through the wall? What is the temperature of the
inner face between the refractory brick and the common brick.

A = 1ft
2

2




K 1


K 2


T1
1
= 0.08 = 0.8
1400
o
F
x
9 170
o
F
= 4.5 inch x2 = 9 inch

T
2
T
3


x
1
4.5/12 , x
2
= 9/12


K1 = 0.08 K
2
= 0.8

4.5 + 9
12 x 0.08 12 x 0.8

Q = T
1
T
3

x
1
+ x
2
/K
2

1

K1

Q /A = (140 0 170)/ (4.5/12x0.08 +9/12x0.8)

Q
/A = 218.666 = 219 Btu/hr ft
2
.

(b)
Q
/A = T
1
- T
2

x
1
/K
1
219 = 1400 T
2

4.5/12 x 0.08
219 = 1400 T
2

4.687
219 x 4.687 = 1400 T
2

T
2
= 1400 219 x 4.687 = 373.547 = 374
o
F

The temperature of the interface = 374
o
F















Problem:6
The inside temperature of a furnace is 1500
0
F and its walls are lined with a 4 inch thick
refractory bricks. The ambient temperature is 100
0
F. Compute the rate of heat flow through the
walls and the temperature profile across the wall. If the variation of thermal conductivity of the
refractory is given by K =0.10 + 5 x 10
-5
T.

Solution:
q/A=?
Temperature Profile =?
T
1
= 1500
0
F, T
2
= 100
0
F, K = 0.10 + 5x10
-5
T
x = 4inch =1/3 ft
Q/A = -K dT/dx
qdx = -KdT


2
1
5
0
0.10 5 10
T
x
T
q dx TdT

= +
} }
5 2 5 2
2 2 1 1
1 1
[0.10 (5 10 ) 0.1 (5 10 ) ]
2 2
qx T T T T

= +
2
1
5 2
1
0.10 (5 10 )
2
T
T
qx T T

(
= +
(

( )
5 2 5 2
2 2 1 1
1 1 1
0.10 5 10 0.1 (5 10 )
3 2 2
q T T T T

= + +
( )
( )( )
5 2 2
1
3[0.1 1500 100 5 10 1500 100 ]
2
q

= +
( )
2
3 140 56
588 / .
q
q Btu hr ft
= +
=
Temperature profile across the wall.
For obtaining the temperature profile.
( )
( )
5
0 1500
5 2
1500
0.1 5 10
1
[0.1 5 10 ]
2
x T
T
q dx T dT
qx T T

= +
= +
} }
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
5 2 5
1 1
588 [0.1 5 10 0.1 1500 5 10 1500 ]
2 2
x T T

= +
5 2
5 2
4 8 2
588 0.1 2.5 10 150 56.25
588 206.25 0.1 2.5 10
0.350 1.7 10 4.25 10
x T T
x T T
x T T

= + +
=
=
This equation shows the non-linear characteristic of
temperature Variation across the wall.
Conduction through a Cylinder:

Consider the hollow cylinder of inside radius is r
1
the outside radius is
r
2
and length of cylinder is L. the thermal conductivity of the cylindrical
material is K. The temperature of the out side surface is at T
2
and the
inside surface is at T
1
. It is desired to calculate the rate of heat flow out
ward for this case.
Consider a very thin cylinder of Wall thickness is dr.
The heat flow at the thickness is
given by

Q = - K 2 t r L dT
dr
Separate the Variable and Integrate the Eq.
between the limits.

Q
r1

r2
dr = - 2tKL
T1

T2
dT
r
r1
r2
r
dr
T1
T2
T+dT
Q ( lnr)
r1
r2
= -2tKL(T)
T1
T2
Q(lnr
2
lnr
1
) = - 2t KL (T
2
T
1
)

Q ln (r2/r1) = 2t KL (T
1
T
2
)



Q = 2t K L (T
1
T
2
)
ln r
2
/r
1

The Eq can be written in the form of Fouriers Eq
we can use the log mean radius

r
m
= r
2
r
1
/ln r
2
/r
1

Then ln r
2
/r
1
= r
2
r
1

r
m


Put the value of ln r
2
/r
1
in the above Eq.

Then Q = K 2 t L (T
1
T
2
)
r
2
r
1
/r
m


Q = 2 t K L r
m
(T
1
T
2
)
r
2
r
1

This relation is used for heat flow through a thick-walled tube.
For thin walled tubes it is sufficient to use the arithmetic mean radius r
a

instead of r
m

Problem :
A tube 60mm OD(Outer Dia) is insulated with a 50 mm layer of silica foam for
which the conductivity is 0.055 w/m
o
C. followed with a 40mm layer of cork with
a conductivity of cork is 0.05 w/m
o
C. If a temperature of the outer surface of the
pipe is150
o
C and the temp. of the outer surface of the cork is 30
o
C, calculate
the Q heat loss in watts per meter of pipe.
Solution:
The layer are too thick to use the arithmetic mean radius. Therefore the
logarithmic mean radius should be used.
Then
O
= 2
t
K L r
m
(T
1
T
2
)
r
2
r
1
160mm



for silica layer 80mm
60

r
m
= 80 30 = 50.97 mm 120mm
ln 80/30



240mm

for cork layer 120 80 mm

r
m
= 120 - 80
l
n
120/80 B T
x
30mm Silica
a
A


o
T
s
pipe


Cork T
c


T
c
50mm 60mm 50mm T
x


T
s



160
- 40 - D = - 40 -
mm mm
240mm.

For the silica layers. T
s
= 150
o
C, Te = 30
o
C
K
A
= 0.055 w/m
o
C , x
A
= 50mm = 0.05m
r
ma
= r
2
r
1
/lnr
2
/r
1
= 80 30 = 50.97mm.
ln 80/30
and for the cork layer = 0.05097m.

K
B
= 0.05 w/ m
o
C , x
b
= 40mm 0.04m

r
mb
= r
2
r
1
= 120 80 = 98.64mm.
ln r
2
/r
1
ln 120/80

=0.09864m


T
s
T
x
= 2.838 q
A
/L

T
x
T
oc
= 1.291 q
B
/L
Add these two
Eq. after rearranging
then
Ts Toc = 2.838 q/L + 1.291 q/L

150 - 30 = q/L (4.1290)

q/L = 120
4.129

q/L = 29.06 w/m Ans.

Temperature distribution in concentric cylindrical metallic
shells.


Problem:
Two Concentric cylindrical metallic shells are separated by a solid material. If the two
metal surfaces are maintained at different constant temperatures what is the steady
state temperature distribution within the separating material?

Solution:

There are many problems where the properties of the system are functions of position
instead of time, in this case, the temperature T and heat flow rate per unit area Q are
both functions of the radius r.



Figure
T
0
T
1
a
b
r
r+r
T
The heat transfer must be related to a space interval b/w r and r + r

Properties of system at r r + r.

Temperature T T + dT r
dr

Heat transfer area/unit length 2tr 2t(r + r)
Heat flow rate per unit area Q Q + dQ r.
or Radial heat flow dr

Total radial heat flow 2trQ 2t(r + r) (Q + dQ r)
dr
Heat input to inner surface = 2trQ.
Heat output from outer surface = 2t(r + r) (Q + dQ r)
dr
Accumulation of heat = 0
Heat input Heat output = accumulation of heat
2
t
r
Q
- 2
t
(r + r) (
Q
+ d
Q
r) = 0
dr
2
t
r
Q
- (2
t
r + 2
t
r) (
Q
+ d
Q
) = 0
dr

2
t
r
Q
- (2
t
r
Q
+ 2
t
r d
Q
r + 2
t Q
r = 0 .
dr + 2
t dQ

r
2
/dr

2
t
r
Q
- 2
t
r
Q
- 2
t
r d
Q
r
r
- 2
t Q
8
r
- 2
t
d
Q

r
2
= 0 .
dr dr

- (2
t
r d
Q
r + 2
t Q
r + 2
t
d
Q
r
2
) = 0
dr dr


2
t
r d
Q
r + 2
t Q
r + 2
t
d
Q
r
2
= 0.
dr dr
r
divide both side by 2
t
r
we will get.
r d
Q
+
Q
+ d
Q
r = 0
dr dr

If r 0.
Then r d
Q
+ Q = 0, r d
Q
= -
Q

dr dr
separate the variable and intgrate.

}
dQ = -
}
dr
Q r
lnQ = - ln r + lnA
ln
Q
+ ln r = ln A

Q
r = A

Q
= A/r
we know that

Q
= - K dT
dr
put the value of
Q
in the above Eq. then
A/r = - K dT
dr
Again separate the variable and integrate
the Eq.

}
dr = -
}
K d T
r A
lnr = - KT/A +B

In this Eq there are two constant of integration A and B these can be eliminated by applying the
boundary condition
A t r = a T = T
o

And A t r = b T = T
1

Apply the Boundary condition in the above Eq.

ln a = - K T
0
/A + B
ln b = - K T
1
/A + B
- + -
ln a lnb = (K T
1
KT
0
)/A
A = K T
1
- K T
0
/ lna lnb
Put the value of A in any of the above two
Eq.
Then. ln a = - K T
0
+B.
( K T
1
K T
0
) / (ln a ln b )

ln a = - K T
0
(lna
l
n
b
) + B.
K (T
1
T
0
)


ln a = - T
0
(lna lnb) + B
T1 T
0

B = lna + T
0
(lna lnb)
T
1
T
0

B = lna (T
1
T
0
) + T
0
(lna lnb)
T
1
T
0



B = T
1
lna T
0
lna + T
0
lna T
0
lnb
T
1
T
0


B = (T
1
lna T
0
lnb) / (T
1
T
0
)
Put the value of A & B in the

Eq.
ln r = - K T + B
A

ln r = - KT + T
1
lna T
0
lnb
K(T
1
T
0
) / (ln a lnb) (T
1
T
0
)

ln r = - K T(lna lnb) + T
1
lna T
o
lnb
K (T
1
T
0
) (T
1
T
0
)

(T
1
T
0
) lnr = (ln b lna) T + T
1
ln a T
0
lnb

(T
1
T
0
) lnr = (lnb lna) T + T
1
ln a T
0
lnb + T
0
lna T
0
lna
(T
1
T
0
) lnr = (lnb lna) T T
0
lnb + T
0
lna + T
1
lna T
0
lna

(T
1
T
0
) lnr = (lnb lna) T T
0
(lnb lna ) + T
1
lna T
0
lna
Unsteady state heat conduction:

The unsteady state heat conduction is that where the temperature distribution does
change with time.

A derivation of the partial differential Eq. for one dimensional heat flow will be
discussed here.

(ln r) (T
1
T
0
) = (lnb lna) (T T
0
) + (T
1
T
0
) lna

(ln r) (T
1
T
0
) -(T
1
-T
0
) lna = (lnb lna) (T T
0
)

( T
1
T
0
) (lnr lna) = (T T
0
) (lnb lna)

T T
0
= lnr lna
T
1
T
0
lnb lna Ans.