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Communication
There are 3 elements in this exchange,
2. Message
communicating by articulating verbal expression Language is the knowledge of a symbol system used for interpersonal communication.
Semantics
Pragmatics
Phonology
The ability to produce and
discriminate the specific sounds of a given language. Its unit, the phoneme, is characterized by distinctive features. Babies start discriminating phonemes during the first few months of life, and they produce them soon after.
Phonology
Phonological receptivity is pluripotential
at birth Starts to decay at around 10 months Reaches a rather general inability to acquire native phonology by preadolescence
Grammar
The underlying rules that organize
any specific language. The combinatorial rules that most native speakers of a language recognize as acceptable for that language and that allow a native speaker an infinite array of generative possibilities.
Grammar
Composed of both morphology and
syntax.
Semantics
The study of meaning
Includes the study of vocabulary
(lexicon).
Lexicon
Lexical entries are organized in the
mental dictionary according to welldefined rules Allows the young child to acquire a peak average of 10 new words per day. By 24 months the average child knows 50 words.
Lexicon Growth
The subsequent
Pragmatics
A number of sub-domains reflecting
communicative competence.
maintenance, conversational repair) Politeness Narrative and extended discourse The implementation of communicative intents
Pragmatic disorders
Little variety in language use
May say inappropriate or unrelated
things during conversations May tell stories in a disorganized way Can often make demands, ask questions, and greet people Has trouble organizing language to talk about what happened in the past.
Pragmatic disorders
Appear to pull topics out of the air
May not use statements that signal a
change in topic, such as "That reminds me." Peers may avoid having conversations with such a child. Can lower social acceptance.
Word combinations
Word production Word comprehension Canonical Babbling
By age 3, most
normal children have mastered the basic structures of their native language
Language acquisition
Occurs with uniformity and rapidity
Supports the hypothesized existence of
innate, genetically determined Universal Grammars Recently proposed a combination of traditional learning and innate language modules.
Disfluencies in Children
Almost all children go through a stage of
frequent disfluency
usually
the disfluencies.
Bilingualism
Psychosocial
generally agree that speech disorders involve deviations of sufficient magnitude to interfere with communication. They draw attention to the speaking act and away from the message
1. Fluency Disorders
Speech is characterized by repeated
interruptions, hesitations, or repetitions Stuttering is by far the most well-known fluency disorder
interrupted by repetitions, blocking, or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases Very familiar, but actually quite rare only 1-5% of the population. Articulation disorders actually occur much more frequently than stuttering
Stuttering -- Causes
1. 2.
3.
Still a mystery Three perspectives: Symptom of emotional disturbance Result of biological makeup Learned response
Stuttering
Disorder of speech fluency that
individuals are disfluent at times Differentiated by the kind and amount of the disfluencies
Characteristics-Repetition
Sounds
b-b-b-ball
Syllables
mo-mo-mommy
Parts of words
basket-basket-basketball
CharacteristicsProlongation
Stretching, of sounds or syllables
r-----abbit
Characteristics
Tense pauses, hesitations, and/or no
Related behaviors
tense muscles in the lips, jaw, and/or
neck tremor of the lips, jaw, and/or tongue foot tapping eye blinks head turns
2. Articulation disorders
This is the largest category of all
speech problems DSM-IV calls these phonological disorders. abnormal speech-sound production, characterized by inaccurate or otherwise inappropriate execution of speaking
2. Articulation disorders
Great majority are functional articulation
disorders Might represent as much as 80% of the speech disorders diagnosed by speech clinicians Must be very careful to distinguish true problems from delay. E.g., r, s, th problems may largely disappear naturally after 5 years of age
2. Articulation disorders
1. Omissions
2. Substitutions 3. Additions 4. Distortions
3. Voice disorders
Unusual or abnormal acoustical
qualities in the sounds made when a person speaks Very little research here What is a normal sounding voice? Nasality, hoarseness, breathiness
4. Delayed speech
Failure to develop speech at the
expected age Somewhat subjective Usually associated with other maturational delays May also be associated with a hearing impairment, mental retardation, emotional disturbance, or brain injury Often the result of environmental deprivation
girls.
Maturation delay
and prelanguage development See Table 10.1 on 320 May involve comprehension (understanding) or expression in written or spoken language These are very complex to diagnose and treat
Language disorders
1. Expressive language disorders
2. Receptive language disorders 3. Aphasia loss of the ability to speak
usual age.
learning disabilities (dyslexia). May use gestures to supplement their limited verbal expression .
Maturation Delay vs. Expressive Language Disorder? The late bloomer will
eventually develop normal speech The child with an expressive language disorder will not do so without intervention.
impossible, to distinguish at an early age a late bloomer from a child with an expressive language disorder.
BILINGUALISM
A bilingual home
environment may cause an apparent temporary delay in the onset of both languages.
BILINGUALISM
The bilingual child's comprehension of
the two languages is normal for a child of the same age. Usually becomes proficient in both languages before the age of five years.
Interference or transfer
An English error due to the direct
Silent period
Common second-language acquisition
phenomenon Often very quiet, speaking little Focus on understanding the new language The younger the child, the longer the silent period tends to last.
Code switching
Changing languages over phrases or
Benefits of Bilingualism
Children who are fluent bilinguals
Benefits of Bilingualism
Our world is shrinking and business
becomes increasingly international Children who are fluent bilingual speakers are potentially a tremendously valuable resource for the U.S. economy.
Language Disorders
Egyptians reported
speech loss after blow to head 3000 years ago Broca (1861) finds damage to left inferior frontal region (Brocas area) of a language impaired patient, in postmortem analysis
hemispheric dominance
Sodium amydal is injected to the carotid artery First to the left and then to the right
Brocas Aphasia
Brodmann 44, 45
(Brocas area) Nonfluent, labored, and hesitant speech Most also lost the ability to name persons or subjects (anomia) Can utter automatic speech (hello) Comprehension relatively intact Most also have partial paralysis of one side of the body (hemiplegia) If extensive, not much recovery over time
Wernickes Aphasia
Brodmann 22, 30
temporal gyrus, extending to adjacent parietal cortex Fluent speech But contains many paraphasias
girl-curl, bread-cake
Wernicke-Geschwind Model
1. Repeating a spoken word
Wernicke-Geschwind Model
2. Repeating a written word
Wernickes area This is an oversimplification of the issue: not all patients show such predicted behavior (Howard,
1997)
Sign Languages
Full-fledged languages, created by hearing-
Dialects, jokes, poems, etc. Do not resemble the spoken language of the same area (ASL resembles Bantu and Navaho) Pinker: Nicaraguan Sign Language Another evidence of the origins of language (gestures)
else both hands (left hemisphere dominance) Signers with brain damage to similar regions show aphasia as well
Signer Aphasia
Young man, both spoken and sign language: Accident and damage to brain Both spoken and sign languages are affected Deaf-mute person, sign language: Stroke and damage to left-side of the brain Impairment in sign language
3 deaf signers: Different damages to the brain with different impairments to grammar and word production
both hearing and deaf But in signers, homologous activation on the right hemisphere is unanswered yet
Dyslexia
Problem in learning to read
Common in boys and left-handed High IQ, so related with language only
Micropolygyria: excessive cortical folding Ectopias: nests of extra cells in unusual location
cow -> horse, cannot read abstract words Fails to see small differences (do not read each letter) Problems with nonsense words
Surface dyslexia (pays attn. to details): Nonsense words are fine Suggests 2 different systems: One focused on the meanings of whole words The other on the sounds of words
Electrical Stimulation
Penfield and Roberts (1959): During epilepsy
surgery under local anesthesia to locate cortical language areas, stimulation of:
stops speech
misnaming, impaired imitation of words unable comprehend auditory and visual semantic material, inability to follow oral commands, point to objects, and understand written questions
Brocas area:
Spanish bilingual shows different areas for each language Stim of inferior premotor frontal cortex:
Stim of other areas: lead to memory errors and reading errors Stim of thalamus during verbal input: increased accuracy of subsequent recall
Williams Syndrome
Caused by the deletion of a dozen genes
from one of the two chromosomes numbered 7 Shows dissociation between language and intelligence, patients are:
Fluent in language But cannot tie their shoe laces, draw images, etc.
Developmental process is altered: Number skills good at infancy, poor at adulthood Language skills poor at infancy, greatly improved in adulthood
liver, use of limbs, etc. Functions of the brain become lateralized Each hemisphere specialized for particular ways of working Split-brain patients are good examples of lateralization of language functions
Lateralization of functions
(approximate)
Visual-Spatial skills
Language
Emotional functions
Music
Split-brain
Epileptic activity spread from one hemisphere
to the other thru corpus callosum Since 1930, such epileptic treated by severing the interhemispheric pathways At first no detectible changes (e.g. IQ) Animal research revealed deficits:
Cat with both corpus callosum and optic chiasm severed Left-hemisphere could be trained for symbol:reward Right-hemisphere could be trained for inverted symbol:reward
Left hemisphere could read and verbally communicate Right hemisphere had small linguistic capacity: recognize single words Vocabulary and grammar capabilities of right is far less than left Only the processes taking place in the left hemisphere could be described verbally