Radiation Safety Series 4

Radiation Hazards
 Human Exposure to Radiation
Annual Dose
Source mrem/yr
Exposure from natural background
Cosmic rays (sun and outer space) 28
Building materials 4
Human body 25
The earth 26
Approximate total annual exposure 100
 Human Exposure to Radiation
Annual Dose
Source mrem/yr
Exposure from man made sources
Medical (mostly diagnostic x-ray) 90
Fallout from atomic bombs 5
Consumer products (mostly color TV) 1__
Approximate total annual exposure 100
 Human Exposure to Radiation
Occupation radiation source averages
Radiography company workers 440
Gamma Radiographers 1,000

CNRP Report No. 45, 1975 and NCRP Report No. 45, 1977
 Radiation vs. Contamination
• Radiation
The emission of waves or fast moving
particles through space
Radioactive Contamination
Material that is radioactive and
uncontrolled. It may soil surrounding
areas and become airborne
 Ionization of Body Tissue
• X-ray, gamma and
neutron penetrate the
body to different
degrees
• Through the ionization
process energy is
absorbed by the tissue
• This causes damage to
the body’s complex
http://www.ratical.org/radiation/NRBE/NRadBioEffects.html
systems
 Biological Effectiveness of
Ionizing Energy an example
• Ionizing radiation is remarkably effective in
causing biological damage
• a dose of 400 rads of whole-body radiation,
delivered quickly, is enough to kill about
half of the humans so exposed in a period of
days to weeks (from acute radiation
sickness LD-50 or MLD median lethal
dose)
 Biological Effects
• How much physical energy does this large
dose of ionizing radiation represent?
• Since all forms of energy interconvert, we
can use heat units as a basis of comparison
• A CALORIE is (by definition) the amount
of heat needed to raise the temperature of
one gram of water by one degree Celsius.
The conversion from ergs to calories is:
 Biological Effects
1 erg = 2.39 x 10-8 calories.
Now since 1 rad (of ionizing radiation)
deposits 100 ergs of energy per gram,
400 rads will deposit
40,000 = 4 x 104 ergs per gram,
which is equivalent to
• (4 x 104) x (2.39 x 10-8) = 9.56 x 10-4
calories per gram
 Biological Effects
• This amount of energy would raise the
temperature of one gram of water by less
than 0.001o C !
• (That is, less than one one-thousandth of a
degree Celsius!) It is an imperceptible
amount of heat
 Biological Effects
• This calculation highlights the enormous
difference between energy in the form of heat and
energy in the form of ionizing radiation.
• An amount of energy which is absolutely
inconspicuous in one form can be lethal in
another. When a radioactive material gives off any
degree of perceptible heat, it is capable of killing
thousands of people.
 What is the reason for the
difference?
It is because the energy of ionizing radiation is not
uniformly distributed among all the molecules of a
gram of tissue, the way thermal energy is. Instead,
ionizing energy is transferred to just a few
electrons in a relatively few molecules, thereby
disrupting the molecular basis of living cells. That
cellular damage is then multiplied and amplified
by normal -- and abnormal -- biological processes.

http://www.ccnr.org/ceac_B.html
 Radiation Damage
Cell damage due to radiation Exposure:
• Increases as cell reproduction rates
increases
• Decreases as the degree of cellular
differentiation increases
• Decreases as cells mature
 Human Cell Sensitivity
1. White Blood Cells
2. Immature Red Blood Cells
3. Digestive System Lining Cells
4. Cells of the Gonads
5. Blood Vessel Cells
6. Bone, Muscle and Nerve Cells
Lowest number has the highest sensitivity
 Nature of Cell Damage
Cell damage due to radiation exposure can
occur in the following ways:
2. Mitosis delayed or stopped (cell division)
3. Cell Injury may be temporary or
permanent
4. Cell death
5. Chromosome Breakup
6. Temporary or permanent cell dysfunction
 Categories of damage
• Somatic effects
the physical effects to the body resulting
from cell damage
• Genetic effects
mutations caused by damage to the germ
line (inheritance)
 Radiation Damage Factors
• Rate the dose is administered
5 rem per quarter for 40 years = 200rem. 200 rem in one dose may be fatal. Damaged cells are replaced quickly.

2. Extent the body is exposed

A large dose over the whole body may cause death. A large dose on a small part of the body will damage that part
and not cause death.

5. Part of the body exposed

Hands, forearms, feet and ankles are allowed 18.75 rem per quarter. Whole body is only allowed 1.25 rem.

7. Age of individual
18 years of age and younger are in a high cell growth stage

9. Biological differences
Biological response is different from individual to individual
 Effects of Radiation Dose
The minimum lethal dose of radiation exposure is
approximately 200 rem. By comparison,
background radiation exposure in the United
States is about 360 mrem per year. When
appropriate medical care is not provided, the
median lethal dose of radiation is estimated to be
350 rem. Modern medical therapy dramatically
improves the survivability of radiation injury.
 Effects of Radiation Dose
The following probable outcomes depend on radiation
exposure amounts:
• For 1000 rem or more: Immediate death occurs.
• For 600-1000 rem: Weakness, nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea are followed by apparent improvement. After
several days, fever; diarrhea; hematochezia; hematemesis;
hematuria; and hemorrhage of the larynx, trachea, bronchi,
or lungs may occur. Death results in about 10 days.
Autopsies show destruction of hematopoietic tissues,
including bone marrow, lymph nodes, and spleen, and
swelling and degeneration of epithelial cells of the
intestines, genital organs, and endocrine glands.
 Effects of Radiation Dose
• For 250-600 rem: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, epilation (loss of hair),
weakness, malaise, hematemesis, hematochezia, hematuria, epistaxis,
bleeding from gums and genitals, subcutaneous bleeding, fever,
inflammation of the pharynx and stomach, and menstrual
abnormalities occur. Marked destruction of bone marrow, lymph
nodes, and the spleen causes a decrease in blood cells, especially
granulocytes and thrombocytes. Radiation-induced atrophy of the
endocrine glands, including the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands,
occurs. From the third to fifth week after exposure, death is closely
correlated with the degree of leukocytopenia. More than 50% of
patients die in this time period. Survivors may develop keloids,
ophthalmologic disorders, blood dyscrasias, malignant tumors, and
psychoneurologic disturbances.
 Effects of Radiation Dose
• For 150-250 rem: Nausea and vomiting occur on the first
day. Diarrhea and skin burns are probable. Apparent
improvement is noted for about 2 weeks thereafter.
Fetal or embryonic death occurs in pregnant women.
Symptoms of malaise are noted, as described above.
Persons in poor health prior to exposure or those who
develop a serious infection may not survive. A previously
healthy adult recovers somewhat in about 3 months but
may have permanent health problems, may develop cancer
or benign tumors, and will probably have a shortened
lifespan. Genetic and teratogenic effects have been noted.
 Effects of Radiation Dose
• For 50-150 rem: Acute radiation sickness and
burns are less severe than at the higher exposure
dose. Spontaneous abortion or stillbirth occurs.
Tissue damage effects are less severe. Reduction
in lymphocytes and neutrophils leaves the
individual temporarily vulnerable to infection.
Genetic damage to offspring, benign or
malignant tumors, premature aging, and
shortened lifespan are possible. Genetic and
teratogenic effects have been noted.
 Effects of Radiation Dose
• For 10-50 rem: Most persons experience
little or no immediate reaction. Sensitive
individuals may experience radiation
sickness. Transient effects

http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic934.htm
 4 clinical stages of radiation
exposure
Each of the acute radiation syndromes (ie, hematopoietic,
gastrointestinal, neurovascular) manifests 4 clinical stages.
Depending on the dose of radiation absorbed, these stages
may be of varying lengths.
• The prodromal phase begins at the time of exposure and
lasts for approximately 1-4 days. The prodrome is
characterized by a relatively rapid onset of nausea,
vomiting, and malaise. Radiogenic vomiting may easily be
confused with psychogenic vomiting that often results
from stress. In high-dose exposures, the length of the
prodromal phase may be considerably shortened and
replaced by the manifest illness phase. A very short to no
latent period may occur, as described below.
 stages of radiation exposure
• The latent period represents an interval of apparent well-
being that lasts for 2-6 weeks but decreases markedly as
the dose rate and the total dose are increased. Clinicians
should not be encouraged by this apparent improvement in
clinical status.
• Manifest illness is characterized by the clinical symptoms
associated with the major organ system injured (ie,
marrow, intestinal, neurovascular).
• Recovery or death follows.
http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic934.htm
 Works Sited
Radiation Safety Training Series Part 1: Radiation, Rudarmel
Enterprises, inc. Lake Oswego, Oregon
CNRP Report No. 45, 1975 and NCRP Report No. 45, 1977
http://www.ratical.org/radiation/NRBE/NRadBioEffects.html
http://www.ccnr.org/ceac_B.html
http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic934.htm