HSSN2 03 TransmissionMedia

Hardware and Software Systems and Networks 2
CT024-3-2
Transmission Media
Level-2
Prepared by: KL First Prepared on: 13-12-04 Last Modified on: 24/07/2005 Quality checked by: xxx Copyright 2004 Asia Pacific Institute of Information Technology
Topic & Structure of the lesson

Guided Media
Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable Fiber-Optical Cable
Unguided Media: Wireless

Radio Waves Microwaves
CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks
Infrared
Chapter 2
Key Terms you must be able to use

If you have mastered this topic, you should be able to use the following terms correctly in your assignments and exams:-
Angle of incidence BNC connector Cladding Core Critical angle Electromagnetic spectrum Fiber-optic cable Ground propagation
Guided media Horn antenna Infrared wave IrDA port Line-of-sight propagation Microwave MT-RJ Multimode graded-index fiber
Chapter 2
Key Terms you must be able to use

Multimode graded-index fiber Multimode step-index fiber Omnidirectional antenna Optical fiber Parabolic dish antenna Radio wave Reflection RG number RJ45 Shielded twisted-pair (STP) Single-mode fiber Sky propagation Straight-tip (ST) connector Subscriber channel (SC) connector Transmission media Twisted-pair cable Unguided medium Unidirectional antenna Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) Wireless communication
Chapter 2
Transmission medium and physical layer

Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and directly controlled by the physical layer. Signals are transmitted from one device to another in the form of electromagnetic energy Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories:
Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is usually air
CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks Chapter 2 5
Transmission medium and physical layer
Chapter 2
Classes of transmission media
Chapter 2
Guided Media
Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable Fiber-Optic Cable
Chapter 2
Twisted-Pair Cable
Its frequency range is suitable for transmitting both data and voice. A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together Interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires.
Chapter 2
Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by external influences. The number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) determines the quality of the cable; more twists mean better quality.
Chapter 2
10
Twisted-pair cable
Chapter 2
11
Unshielded versus Shielded TwistedPair

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.
UTP and STP
Chapter 2
13
Categories of UTP
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify UTP cable into seven categories Categories are determined by cable quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as the highest.
Chapter 2
14
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 (draft) 7 (draft)
Bandwidth very low < 2 MHz 16 MHz 20 MHz 100 MHz 200 MHz 600 MHz
Data Rate < 100 kbps 2 Mbps 10 Mbps 20 Mbps 100 Mbps 200 Mbps 600 Mbps
Chapter 2
Digital/Analog Analog Analog/digital Digital Digital Digital Digital Digital
Use Telephone T-1 lines LANs LANs LANs LANs LANs

15
UTP connector
Chapter 2
16
UTP connector & Performance

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ-Registered Jack) The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way. Measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuation versus frequency and distance.
UTP performance
Chapter 2
18
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable. Coax has central core conductor of solid (copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.
Coaxial cable
Chapter 2
20
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.
Categories of coaxial cables
Category
RG-59 RG-58 RG-11
Impedance
75 W 50 W 50 W
Use
Cable TV Thin Ethernet Thick Ethernet
Chapter 2
22
Coaxial Cable Connectors

To connect coaxial cable to devices, need coaxial connectors. The most common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC). The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device, such as a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out a cable for connection to a computer or other devices. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.
BNC connectors
Chapter 2
24
Coaxial Cable Performance

The attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in twisted-pair cable. Although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal weakens rapidly and needs the frequent use of repeaters. Coaxial started in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial network could carry 10,000 voice signals. It can carry digital data up to 600 Mbps.
Coaxial cable performance
Chapter 2
26
Coaxial Application
Cable TV networks used coaxial cables. The recent cable TV providers replaced most of the network with fiber-optic cable. Hybrid networks use coaxial cable only at the network boundaries, near the consumer premises. 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10 Mbps with a range of 185 m. Thick Ethernet, uses RG-11 (thick coaxial cable) to transmit 10 Mbps with a range of 5000 m.
Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another (more or less dense), the ray change direction.
Bending of light ray
Chapter 2
29
Bending of light ray

The above figure shows, if the angle of incidence is less then the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves closer to the surface. If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the light bends along the interface. If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (make a turn) and travels again in the denser substance.
CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks Chapter 2
30
Optical fiber
Chapter 2
31
Optical fiber
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A class or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being refracted into it.
Propagation Modes
Current technology support two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multimode can be implemented in two form:
Step-index Graded-index
Propagation modes
Chapter 2
34
Multimode, step-index fiber

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different path. In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the centre to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. At the interface, there is an sudden change to a lower density that alters the angel of the beams motion. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change.
Chapter 2
35
Multimode graded-index fiber

It decreases this distortion of the signal through the cable. The word index here refers to the index of refraction which is related to density. Density is highest at the center of the core and decrease gradually to its lowest at the edge.
Chapter 2
36
Single Mode
Single-mode uses step-index fiber and highly focused source of light that limits beams to a small range of angles. The single-mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with substantially lower density (index of refraction). The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 900 to make the propagation of beams almost horizontal.
Modes
Chapter 2
38
Fiber Sizes
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.
Chapter 2
39
Fiber types
Type 50/125 62.5/125 100/125 7/125
Core 50 62.5 100 7
Cladding 125 125 125 125
Mode Multimode, graded-index Multimode, graded-index Multimode, graded-index Single-mode
Chapter 2
40
Fiber construction
Chapter 2
41
Cable Composition
The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar strands to strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.
Fiber-optic cable connectors
Chapter 2
43
Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors

Fiber-optic cable use three different type of connectors. subscriber channel (SC) connector is used in cable TV. It is uses a push/pull locking system. straight-tip (ST) connector - is used for connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC. MT-RJ is a new connector with the same size as RJ45.
Optical fiber performance
Chapter 2
45
Fiber-optic Performance
Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable. The performance is such that we need fewer repeaters when we use fiber-optic cable.
Chapter 2
46
Fiber-optic Application
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective. Wave-division multiplexing (WDM) can transfer data at a rate of 1600 Gbps. Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus creating a hybrid network.
Advantages of Optical Fiber

Higher bandwidth Can support dramatically higher bandwidths than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Less signal attenuation transmission distance is significantly greater than that of other guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.
Advantages of Optical Fiber

Immunity to electromagnetic interference Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic cables. Resistance to corrosive materials Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper. Light weight Much lighter than copper cables. More immune to tapping More immune to tapping than copper cables. Copper cables create antennas that can easily be tapped.
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

Installation/maintenance It is a relatively new technology. Installation and maintenance need expertise that is not yet available everywhere. Unidirectional Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed. Cost More expensive than of other guided media.
Radio Waves
Microwaves Infrared
Chapter 2
51

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor; often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through air and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
Chapter 2
52
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
Chapter 2
53
Unguided Signal
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways.
Ground propagation Sky propagation Line-of-sight propagation
Chapter 2
54
Propagation methods
Chapter 2
55
Propagation methods
In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the greater the distance.
Propagation methods
Sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower power output.
Chapter 2
57
Propagation methods
In line-of-sight propagation, very highfrequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth.
Bands
The electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves is divided into eight ranges. Called bands, each regulated by government authorities. These bands are rates from very low frequency (VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF).
Chapter 2
59
Bands
Band VLF LF MF HF VHF Range 330 KHz 30300 KHz 300 KHz3 MHz 330 MHz 30300 MHz Propagation Ground Ground Sky Sky Sky and line-of-sight Application Long-range radio navigation Radio beacons and navigational locators AM radio Citizens band (CB), ship/aircraft communication VHF TV, FM radio UHF TV, cellular phones, paging, satellite
UHF SHF EHF
300 MHz3 GHz 330 GHz 30300 GHz
Line-of-sight Line-of-sight Line-of-sight

Chapter 2
Satellite communication Long-range radio navigation

60
Wireless transmission waves
Chapter 2
61
Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally call radio waves. Wave ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Radio waves use omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. Radio waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances such as AM radio. The disadvantage of radio waves is transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
Omnidirectional antennas
Chapter 2
63
Application of Radio waves

The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television, cordless phones, and paging are examples of multicasting.
Chapter 2
64
Radio waves
Note: Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging systems.
Chapter 2
65
Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional which is propagation is line-of-sight. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. The advantage of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
Disadvantage of Microwaves
The curvature of the earth as well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to communicate using microwaves . Repeaters are often needed for longdistance communication. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz.
Unidirectional Antennas
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two type of antennas used
Parabalic dish Horn
Chapter 2
68
Parabolic Dish
A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola. Every line parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus. The parabolic disk works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing them to the common point.
Horn Antenna
Looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stream (resembling a handle) and deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by the curved head. Received transmissions are collected by the scooped shape of the horn.
Chapter 2
70
Unidirectional antennas
Chapter 2
71
Microwaves
Note:
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs.
Chapter 2
72
Infrared (IrDA)
Infrared signals, with frequencies from (300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-range communication. Infrared signals, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. The IrDA standard originally defined a data rate of 75 Kbps for distance up to 8 m. The recent standard defines a data rate of 4 Mbps.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Infrared

The advantages of infrared
A short-range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by our neighbors.
The disadvantages of infrared

It is useless for long range communication. Can not use outside a building because the suns rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
Infrared (IrDA)
Note: Infrared signals can be used for shortrange communication in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
Chapter 2
75
Quick Review Questions

Refer to tutorial question.
Chapter 2
76
Summary of Transmission Media

Transmission media lie below the physical layer. A guided medium provides a physical conduit from one device to another. Twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and optical fiber are the most popular types of guided media. Twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together. Twisting allows each wire to have approximately the same noise environment. Twisted-pair cable is used in telephone lines for voice and data communications.
Chapter 2 77
Summary of Main Teaching Points

Coaxial cable has the following layers (starting from the centre): a metallic rod-shaped inner conductor, an insulator covering the rod, a metallic outer conductor (shield), an insulator covering the shield, and a plastic cover. Coaxial cable is used in cable TV networks and traditional Ethernet LANs. Fiber-optic cable are composed of a glass or plastic inner core surrounded by cladding, all encased in an outside jacket.

Fiber-optic cables carry data signals in the form of light. The signal is propagated along the inner core by reflection. Fiber-optic transmission is becoming increasingly popular due to its noise resistance, low attenuation, and high-bandwidth capabilities. Signal propagation in optical fibers can be multimode (multiple beam from a light source) or single-mode (essentially one beam from a light source).

In multimode step-index propagation, the core density is constant and the light beam charges direction suddenly at the interface between the core and cladding. In multimode graded-index propagation, the core density decreases with distance from the centre. This causes a curving of the light beams. Fiber-optic cable is used in backbone networks, cable TV networks, and Fast Ethernet networks.
Chapter 2
80

Unguided media (usually air) transport electromagnetic waves without the use of a physical conductor. Wireless data are transmitted through ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation. Wireless data can be classified as radio waves, microwaves, or infrared waves. Radio waves are omnidirectional. The radio wave band is under government regulation.

Microwaves are unidirectional; propagation is line of sight. Microwaves are used for cellular phone, satellite, and wireless LAN communications. The parabolic disk antenna and the horn antenna are used for transmission and reception of microwaves. Infrared waves are used for short-range communications such as those between a PC and a peripheral device.
Question and Answer Session
Q&A
Next Session
Circuit Switching and Telephone Network
Chapter 2
84

HSSN2 03 TransmissionMedia

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Hardware and Software Systems and Networks 2

Topic & Structure of the lesson

Unguided Media: Wireless

Key Terms you must be able to use

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Key Terms you must be able to use

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Transmission medium and physical layer

Transmission medium and physical layer

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Classes of transmission media

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Coaxial Cable Fiber-Optic Cable

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Unshielded versus Shielded TwistedPair

UTP and STP

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 (draft) 7 (draft)

Digital/Analog Analog Analog/digital Digital Digital Digital Digital Digital

Use Telephone T-1 lines LANs LANs LANs LANs LANs

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

UTP connector & Performance

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Categories of coaxial cables

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Coaxial Cable Connectors

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Coaxial Cable Performance

Coaxial cable performance

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Bending of light ray

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Bending of light ray

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Multimode, step-index fiber

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Multimode graded-index fiber

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Type 50/125 62.5/125 100/125 7/125

Core 50 62.5 100 7

Cladding 125 125 125 125

Mode Multimode, graded-index Multimode, graded-index Multimode, graded-index Single-mode

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Fiber-optic cable connectors

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors

Optical fiber performance

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

CT014-1 Hardware, Systems Software and Networks

Advantages of Optical Fiber

Advantages of Optical Fiber

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber