Modulation Index & AM

Power Signals
MODULATION INDEX
Modulation index, m is defined as a parameter, which
determines the amount of modulation.
For AM, it is defined as a measure of the extent which a
carrier voltage is varied by the modulating signal.
For proper AM to occur
V
m
s V
c

Modulation index, or in percentage ,


By this definition, we could distinguished three different
types of amplitude modulation.
Under modulated AM for m < 1
Ideal AM for m = 1
Over modulated AM for m > 1
100%
m
c
V
M x
V
=
c
m
V
V
m =
m < 1 : under modulation
V
m
< V
c
signal strength obtained at the receiver is not
exactly the same as the signal strength at the
transmitter.
No distortion to the signal, just reduced signal
strength.
Figure 2.4 m < 1, under modulation.
m=1 : ideal modulation
V
m
= V
c
will produce greatest output at the receiver
without distortion
maximum info signal amplitude is transmitted
more info signal power is transmitted
producing stronger, more intelligible signal
hard to achieve especially when the
modulating signal amplitude varies randomly
over a wide range only the peak of the signal
will produce 100% modulation.

Figure 2.5 m = 1, ideal modulation.
m > 1 : over modulation
V
m
> V
c
cause distortion
negative peaks have been clipped off.
The original shape of the signal is destroyed.

Figure 2.6 m > 1, over modulated AM
Modulation index can be calculated directly from the AM wave.
Figure 2.7(a) shows the measurement of modulation index using the
minimum and maximum value while Figure 2.7(b) using peak-to-
peak value.
0 0.5 1 1.5
x 10
-3
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
V
)
max
V
min
V
c
V
m
V
max
max min
max min
max min


2

2
m c
c c
c c
m
c
V V V
m
V V
V V V V
V V
V
V V
V

= =
=

=
+
=
Figure 2.7(a) Measuring m using max and min value
m c
m c
V V V
V V V
Or
=
+ =
min
max
Figure 2.7(b) Measuring m
using peak-to-peak value
and the form of trapezoidal
0 0.5 1 1.5
x 10
-3
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
time
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
V
)
min
p p
V

max
p p
V

A B
% 100 % x
A B
A B
m
+

=
max min
max min
max min
max min
p p p p
p p p p
V V
m
V V
V V
m
V V

=
+

=
+
Example 2.3
A carrier signal with a peak voltage of
2.0V is amplitude modulated with a
10kHz sine wave. The modulation
voltage has an effective value of 750mV.
Compute the following:

a. The percent modulation, m
b. The instantaneous voltage of the
positive and negative envelope when
the 10kHz sine has completed 68s of
its cycle.
c. Illustrate the resulting AM waveform
Answers
a. Modulation index



b. Voltage at t = 68s





Therefore the negative envelope is -1.04V
1.414 750
100% 100% 53.04%
2.0
m
c
V x mV
m x x
V V
= = =
sin2
(1 sin2 )
2.0(1 0.5304sin2 .10kHz.68s)
=1.04V
env c m m
m
V V V f t
Vc m f t
t
t
t
= +
= +
= +
POWER FOR AM
The equation of amplitude modulation and the definition
of modulation index can be combined to show the
amount of power in a carrier and total signal:
index modulation
power carrier
power ed transmitt total
=
=
=
m
P
P
c
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
2
m
P P
c T
AM POWER TRANSMISSION
We have seen that the power in AM is equal to
the carrier power and the sideband power.
Total transmitted power, P
T
is equal to the sum of
the carrier power (P
C
) and both of the sidebands
(P
USB
, P
LSB
)

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
0.707 0.707 0.707
2 2 2
T C USB LSB
C rms USB rms LSB rms
C USB LSB
C USB LSB
P P P P
V V V
R R R
V V V
R R R
V V V
R R R
= + +
= + +
= + +
= + +
The term R correspond to
the fact that antenna (which
is a load) will have its own
impedance and dissipate
power for a resistor is

In the previous discussion,
we assume the impedance of
the antenna is unity (R = 1).
From the sideband voltage
2 2
2
rms
V V
P
R R
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ + =

+ =
= =
2
1
4 4
2 4 2 4 2
2
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
m
P
P
m
P
m
P
R
V m
R
V m
R
V
P
V m
V V
c
c c c
c c c
T
c
USB LSB
Upper and lower sidebands power are
equal, therefore


2
2
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
2
4 2 8
m
LSB USB
c
c c
V
P P
R
mV
R
m V m V
R R
| |
|
\ .
= =
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
= =
|
\ .
If m = 1,




In practice, carrier signal will be
modulated by several signals
simultaneously. The total modulation
index or effective modulation index has to
be calculated.
3 2
,
2 3
1 1
,
3 6
T C C T
sidebands T LSB USB T
P P P P
P P P P P
= =
= = =
for m < 1 , P
LSB
+ P
USB
are even less !!


2 2
0.75
1 400 1
2 2
512.5
T C
m
P P
W
| | | |
= + = +
| |
\ . \ .
=

A 400 W carrier is modulated to a depth
of 75%. Calculate the total power in the
modulated wave

Solution:
Example 2.4
Example 2.5
An AM broadcast stations peak carrier
voltage of 2 kV has been amplitude
modulated to an index of 75% with a 2 kHz
test tone. The station broadcast frequency is
810 kHz. Compute the following:
1. The lower and upper sidebands frequencies,
f
LSB
and f
USB
2. The peak modulation voltage, V
m

3. The peak lower and upper sideband voltages,
V
LSB
and V
USB
4. The maximum signal amplitude, V
max
Example 2.6
A spectrum analyzer with an input impedance of 50 O is
used to measure the power spectrum of an AM signal at
the output of a preamplifier circuit. The AM signal has
been modulated with a sine wave. The effective power
P
C
is 745 mW, and each sideband, P
USB
and P
LSB
is 125 mW.
Compute the following:
1. The total effective power, P
T
2. The peak carrier voltage, V
C
3. The modulation index, m, and the percentage of
modulation index M
4. The modulation voltage V
m
5. The lower and upper sideband voltages, V
LSB
and
V
USB
6. Sketch the waveform that you would see with an
oscilloscope if it were placed in parallel with the
spectrum analyzer
MODULATION BY SEVERAL
SINE WAVES
In practice, modulation of a carrier by a several
sine waves simultaneously is the rule rather than
exception.
To calculate the resulting power
Let V
1
, V
2
and V
3
etc. be the amplitude of the
information signals, the resultant voltages, V
T

becomes


dividing both sides by V
C
2 2 2
1 2 3
.........
T
V V V V = + + +
2 2 2
3 1 2
..........
T
C C C C
V V V V
V V V V
| | | | | |
= + + +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
The equation of the
total current and
carrier current is
derived from the
total power
equation :-
2 2 2
1 2 3
2
that is
..........
1
2
T
T
T C
m m m m
m
P P
= + + +
| |
= +
|
\ .
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
T C
T
C
T
C
T T
C
m
P P
m
I R I R
I m
I
I m
or
I
| |
= +
|
\ .
| |
= +
|
\ .
| |
= +
|
\ .
| |
= +
|
\ .
(4.26)
Example 2.7
Q. The antenna current of an AM transmitter
is 12A when unmodulated but increases to
13A when modulated. Calculate the index
percentage.

A. 59%
Example 2.8
Q. The antenna of an AM transmitter is
8 A when only the carrier is sent, but
it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier
is modulated by a single sine wave.
Find the percentage of modulation
and the antenna current when the
percentage of modulation changes to
0.8.
AM Circuits
AM CIRCUITS
2 ways to produce AM :-
Analog Multiplication
multiply carrier by a gain or attenuation
factor that varies with the modulating signal.
eg. : analog multiplier
Non-linear Mixing
linearly mix or algebraically add the carrier
and modulating signal and then apply the
composite signal to a nonlinear device or
circuit
eg. : the simplest circuit is a resistive mixing
network + diode rectifier + LC tuned circuit
Analog Multiplication
AM is produced by multiplying the carrier by a
factor = 1 + modulating sine wave.
Device like amplifiers or voltage dividers (PIN
diodes) can create the gain or attenuation that
varies with the modulating signal and hence
produces the AM by passing the carrier through
the device.
( sin2 )(sin2 )
( sin2 )(sin2 )
AM c m m c
c c m c
v V V f t f t
V mV f t f t
t t
t t
= +
= +
) 2 sin 1 ( 2 sin t f m t f V v
m c c AM
t t + =
Non-Linear Mixing
Linearly mix the carrier and modulating
signals.
A composite voltage is used to vary the
current in the nonlinear device.
The current is proportional to the
nonlinear device but not vary linearly with
the applied voltage.
Nonlinear device
FETs, diodes & BJTs
Square law response

Continue..
Figure 2.8 Square law response
curve
Current in the device is proportional to
the square of the input voltage.
Squaring the sum of the carrier
and modulating signals produces
the classic AM equation.
Figure 2.9 AM with diode
the simplest circuit is a
resistive mixing network
+ diode rectifier + LC
tuned circuit.
LC filters the unwanted
higher order harmonics.
a = constant
i = av
2

Vm(t)
Vc(t)
R1
R2
R3
D
AM output
L C
Diode Modulator
It is the oldest and
the simplest
modulator
consist of :
resistive mixing
network
diode rectifier
LC tuned circuit
Vm(t)
Vc(t)
R1
R2
R3
D
AM output
L C
Figure 2.10 Diode modulator
Figure 2.11 Waveform in the
diode modulator
Carrier signal is applied to one input resistor
Modulating signal is applied to other input resistor
The mixed signal appear across R
3
The signal are linearly mixed algebraically added
Resultant wave : modulating signal seems riding on
the carrier signal
The positive going pulses are applied to the parallel
tune circuit, which will resonate at carrier frequency
L and C repeatedly exchange causing an oscillation at
resonant frequency it will create a ve half cycle for
every +ve input pulses
Most commonly used in low power AM transmitter
Carrier signal is applied to the emitter of a
transmitter through T
1
Modulating signal is applied to the collector
Also called collector modulation
Q
1
is a class C base amplifier
Collector bias is developed by V
cc
through R
2
and
the small DC resistance of L
1
.
Base bias is also developed by V
cc
and R
2
through
the voltage divider network of R
1
and R
3
C
3
compensate for temperature variation

Transistor Modulator
R2
R1 L1
C1
C6
C5
C4
C3
C2
C7
T1 Vc(t)
L2 output AM
signal
Q1
Vcc
Vm(t)
R3
Figure 2.12 Transistor modulator
C
4
prevents ac signal from reaching the power
supply
The output signal is developed across the high ac
resistance of L
1
Since Q
1
is biased class C, only the amplified
+ve pulses of the carrier signal will appear on
the output
-ve pulses are developed in the same manner as
in the diode modulator a pie filter circuit
consisting of L
2
and C
6
/ C
7
is resonant at the
carrier frequency and adds to the ve pulses
C
5
is the coupling capacitor and prevents the dc
bias on the collector from reaching the output
L
2
is in parallel to C
6
and C
7
making a tank circuit
that is resonant at the carrier frequency
This circuit also can operate as an impedance
matching circuit.

Other Examples of Modulators
R1
R2
L2
C2
C4 C5
C3
Q1
L1
Q2
C1
Vcc
Vm(t)
Vc(t)
Output AM
signal
Figure 2.13 Series Modulator
Fig. 2.14 PIN diode modulator
Linear Integrated Circuit AM
Modulators
Use a unique arrangement of transistors and
FETs to perform signal multiplication ideally
suited to generate AM waveforms.
ICs can perfectly match current flow, amplifier
voltage gain, and temperature variations.
Also offer excellent frequency stability,
symmetrical modulation characteristic, circuit
miniaturization, fewer components, temperature
immunity and simplicity of design and
troubleshooting.
Disadvantages of ICs on the other hand are low
output power, relatively low usable frequency
range, susceptibility to fluctuation in the dc
power supply, eg. XR-2206
FIGURE 2.15 XR-2206: (a) Block diagram; (b) schematic
diagram; (c) output voltage-versus-input voltage curve
FIGURE 2.16 Linear integrated-circuit AM modulator
SINGLE SIDEBAND
SUPPRESSED
CARRIERS
Suppressed Carriers
In Fig. 2.17, the center
spectrum is removed or
reduced, hence the whole
signal becomes double
sideband suppressed
carrier or DSB-SC
Total transmitted power is
in the sidebands.
Instead of 2/3 of power
lost in the carrier, almost
all being the available
power is used in the
sidebands.
LSB USB f
A
Suppressed
carrier - absent
Fig. 2.17 DSB AM in the frequency domain
The algebraic sum of the 2 sinusoidal
sidebands.
During the modulation, the carrier is
suppressed, but the 2 sidebands remains
(refer Fig. 2.17).
Repetition rate is determined by the RF carrier
wave.
Amplitude is controlled by the level of
modulating signal.
Output takes the shape of the modulating
signal except with alternating +ve and ve
polarities that corresponds to the polarity of
the carrier signal.
Phase transition.
Generated using balance modulator.
DSB-SC
Figure 2.18
DSBSC generation
Figure 2.19 Block
diagram of balanced
modulator
Figure 2.20 (a) The (magnitude) spectrum of a DSB SC
AM signal for a sinusoid message signal and (b) its
lower and (c) upper sidebands.
Example 2.9
For a 100W total available power in the
sidebands, compare the power in the sidebands
when the modulation is standard AM with m =
100%, vs a SC design where 90% of the carrier
power is suppressed. How many times greater
is the sideband power in the suppressed carrier
case?
For m = 1, P
T
= P
C
(1+m
2
/2) = P
C
(3/2)
P
C
= 66.7W & P
SB
=100 66.7 =33.3W
DSB-SC P
C
= 66.7W x 0.9 = 60.0W (reduced)
New P
SB
=33.3W +60.0W = 93.3W
The power ratio = P
SBnew
/ P
SBold
= 2.8
In dB = 4.5 dB
Means in AM info transmitted only 33.3% but in
DSB-SC is 93.3%.
Example 2.10
Q. A 500 W DSB-SC system with 100%
modulation suppresses 50% of the carrier
and the suppressed carrier power goes to
the sidebands. How much power is in the
sidebands and how much is in the carrier?
By how many dB has the sideband power
increased?
A. With 100% modulation, final Pc = 500W
and total Psb = 250W, if Pc is diverted to
SB, the new Pc = 500 250 = 250W and
the new Psb = 250 +250 = 500W. The
increase in power is 500/250 = 2 = 3dB.

Figure 2.21(a) A time-domain display of a DSB SC AM
signal (b) A frequency-domain display of a DSB AM signal
Advantages of DSBSC compared to
AM
power conservation can be allocated
to both sidebands longer distance
easy to generate

Disadvantages of DSBSC compared
to AM
Rarely used because the signal is
difficult to recover at the receiver
requires carrier reinsertion complex
circuitry
Take the same BW as in AM not
efficient
Single Sideband
In DSB, info is transmitted twice, once in
each sideband
One sideband may be suppressed
SSBSC / SSB
In SSB, when no info or modulating signal
is present, no RF signal is transmitted
In a standard AM transmitter, carrier is
still transmitted even though it may not be
modulated
Refer Figure 2.22 and 2.23.
Figure 2.22 SSB signal with carrier
Figure 2.23 SSB signal without carrier
Example 2.11
Q. Given f
c
= 14.3 MHz and f
m
= 2 kHz, what is the
frequency of the signal if it is being SSB
modulated?

A. After SSB modulation, the modulated signal is at
f = f
c
+ f
m
= 14.302 MHz USB
or
f = f
c
f
m
= 14.298 MHz LSB either one.

*most signals are not pure sine wave, eg. Voice, it will
create a complex SSB signal which varies in frequency and
amplitude over a narrow spectrum defined by the voice
signal BW.