Contents

Introduction Unconsolidated clastic sediments Sedimentary rocks Diagenesis Sediment transport and deposition Sedimentary structures Facies and depositional environments Glacial/eolian/lacustrine environments Fluvial/deltaic/coastal environments Shallow/deep marine environments Stratigraphic principles Sequence stratigraphy Sedimentary basins Models in sedimentary geology Applied sedimentary geology Reflection

EaES 350-11

EaES 350-11

EaES 350-11

The Bible of stratigraphic classification

Salvador, A. (Editor), 1994. International Stratigraphic Guide. A Guide to Stratigraphic Classification, Terminology, and Procedure. Geological Society of America, Boulder, 214 pp.
EaES 350-11 4

Stratigraphic principles
Lithostratigraphy = subdivision of the stratigraphic record into sediments or rocks by means of lithologic characteristics and stratigraphic position Biostratigraphy = subdivision of the stratigraphic record into sediments or rocks by means of fossil content Chronostratigraphy = subdivision of the stratigraphic record into bodies of sediment or rock represented by a particular age, separated from underlying and overlying units by isochronous surfaces Geochronology = subdivision of Earth history into time intervals

EaES 350-11

EaES 350-11

Stratigraphic principles
Type sections (stratotypes) constitute the standard of reference for definition and recognition of a stratigraphic unit or stratigraphic boundary; they are defined where these are representative and well developed
Stratigraphic relationships can be inferred from the principle of superposition, unconformities, cross-cutting relationships, included fragments, and way-up indicators

EaES 350-11

EaES 350-11

EaES 350-11

EaES 350-11

10

Stratigraphic principles
Type sections (stratotypes) constitute the standard of reference for definition and recognition of a stratigraphic unit or stratigraphic boundary; they are defined where these are representative and well developed
Stratigraphic relationships can be inferred from the principle of superposition, unconformities, cross-cutting relationships, included fragments, and way-up indicators

EaES 350-11

11

EaES 350-11

12

EaES 350-11

13

EaES 350-11

14

Stratigraphic principles
Lithostratigraphy
The formation is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphic classification; just as the other lithostratigraphic ranks (groups, members, beds), it should be based on field description (i.e., fossil content and age do not play a role) Mode of deposition (genesis) is not a criterion in the distinction of lithostratigraphic units; this requires interpretation and is therefore likely to undergo revision over time Lithostratigraphic units should have some degree of overall lithologic homogeneity, although diversity in detail may in itself characterize a lithostratigraphic unit

EaES 350-11

15

EaES 350-11

16

EaES 350-11

17

Stratigraphic principles
Lithostratigraphy
Lithostratigraphic units are commonly diachronous, as opposed to chronostratigraphic units Detailed geologic mapping is usually strongly based on lithostratigraphy, whereas overview geologic maps usually show chronostratigraphic units Although objective lithostratigraphic classification should be as simple and straightforward as possible, reality demonstrates that this is not always the case; as a result, in many areas revisions are frequently proposed which can lead to extremely complicated and confusing situations

EaES 350-11

18

Stratigraphic principles
Biostratigraphy
Evolution forms the initial basis for biostratigraphic subdivision, either through the development of an increasing number of new species, or by means of evolution of one particular species In general, Earth history shows an increase of the number of taxa, but this process is punctuated by (mass) extinctions Depositional environments and geographic contrasts play an important role in determining the nature of fossil assemblages The biozone is the fundamental biostratigraphic unit Biozones are strictly diachronous in most cases; however, over geological time scales their boundaries can commonly be considered to be isochronous, but their resolving power has limitations!
EaES 350-11 19

EaES 350-11

20

EaES 350-11

21

Stratigraphic principles
Biostratigraphy
Evolution forms the initial basis for biostratigraphic subdivision, either through the development of an increasing number of new species, or by means of evolution of one particular species In general, Earth history shows an increase of the number of taxa, but this process is punctuated by (mass) extinctions Depositional environments and geographic contrasts play an important role in determining the nature of fossil assemblages The biozone is the fundamental biostratigraphic unit Biozones are strictly diachronous in most cases; however, over geological time scales their boundaries can commonly be considered to be isochronous, but their resolving power has limitations!
EaES 350-11 22

EaES 350-11

23

EaES 350-11

24

Stratigraphic principles
Biostratigraphy
A vast diversity of types of fossils exists; the following criteria are important in determining how useful they are for strictly stratigraphic purposes of correlation:
Abundance and size Degree of dispersal Preservation potential Rate of speciation

As a result, especially numerous marine microfossils (e.g., forams) are stratigraphically highly useful, whereas others are more valuable for paleoecologic purposes Numerous pitfalls exist in the correlation of biozones (e.g., Quaternary pollen zones)
EaES 350-11 25

EaES 350-11

26

EaES 350-11

27

EaES 350-11

28

Stratigraphic principles
Chronostratigraphy
Chronostratigraphic classification of sediments or rocks involves the establishment of time lines (isochrons); this, in turn, forms the basis for paleogeographic reconstruction Traditionally, biostratigraphy has formed the most important basis for chronostratigraphic classification Numerical dating techniques are becoming increasingly important in defining chronostratigraphic units

EaES 350-11

29

Stratigraphic principles
Chronostratigraphy
Radiometric dating methods are in essence based on the decay of radioactive isotopes
N N0 e t
N=number of daughter isotopes; N0=initial number of parent isotopes; =decay constant; t=time

Radiometric dating involves a large number of isotopes and decay series, with highly variable halflives and applications (age ranges from less than a century to billions of years)

EaES 350-11

30

EaES 350-11

31

EaES 350-11

32

EaES 350-11

33

Stratigraphic principles
Chronostratigraphy
Mass spectrometry is the most commonly used technique to measure the ratio between different isotopes Many sediments and sedimentary rocks are not suitable for radiometric dating; indirect ages can sometimes be obtained through dating of associated igneous rocks (e.g., volcanics) Luminescence dating is a relatively new technique that allows quartz and feldspar grains up to several 100 kyr to be dated; it is based on the measurement of a minute light signal that can be released by these grains and that is proportional to time after burial
EaES 350-11 34

EaES 350-11

35

EaES 350-11

36

Stratigraphic principles
Magnetostratigraphy
The Earths magnetic field is constantly subject to change
Secular variations, continuous changes of the position of the magnetic poles, take place over time scales of 101 to 103 years Reversals from normal polarity to reversed polarity occur over time scales of 104 to 106 years

Fine-grained sediments deposited from suspension can align themselves according to the ambient geomagnetic field (the same applies to volcanics upon cooling below the Curie point) If paleomagnetic changes are independently numerically dated, a resulting magnetostratigraphy can be used to date sedimentary successions
EaES 350-11 37

EaES 350-11

38

EaES 350-11

39