Affine geometry is a form of geometry featuring

the unique parallel line property (see the

parallel postulate) where the notion of angle is
undefined and lengths cannot be compared in
different directions (that is, Euclid's third and
fourth postulates are meaningless)

In effect, affine
geometry is a
First identified by Euler, many affine generalization of
properties are familiar from Euclidean geometry
Euclidean geometry, but also apply in characterized by
Minkowski space slant and scale
distortions
Affine geometry can be developed in terms
of the geometry of vectors, with or without
the notion of coordinates. An affine space
is distinguished from a vector space of the
same dimension by 'forgetting' the origin 0
(sometimes known as free vectors). Thus,
affine geometry can be seen as part of
linear algebra
Ordered geometry

Ordered geometry is a form of geometry

featuring the concept of intermediacy (or
"betweenness") but, like projective geometry,
omitting the basic notion of measurement.
Ordered geometry is a fundamental geometry
forming a common framework for affine,
Euclidean, absolute, and hyperbolic geometry
(but not for projective geometry).
History

Moritz Pasch first defined a geometry

without reference to measurement in
1882. His axioms were improved upon by
Peano (1889), Hilbert (1899), and Veblen
(1904) [1]. Euclid anticipated Pasch's
approach in definition 4 of The Elements:
"a straight line is a line which lies evenly
with the points on itself"
Primitive concepts

The only primitive notions in ordered

geometry are points A, B, C, ... and the
relation of intermediacy [ABC] which can be
read as "B is between A and C".
Definitions
 The segment AB is the set of points P such that [APB].
 The interval AB is the segment AB and its end points A and B.
 The ray A/B (read as "the ray from A away from B") is the set of
points P such that [PAB].
 The line AB is the interval AB and the two rays A/B and B/A. Points
on the line AB are said to be collinear.
 An angle consists of a point O (the vertex) and two non-collinear
rays out from O (the sides).
 A triangle is given by three non-collinear points (called vertices) and
their three segments AB, BC, and CA.
 If three points A, B, and C are non-collinear, then a plane ABC is
the set of all points collinear with pairs of points on one or two of
the sides of triangle ABC.
 If four points A, B, C, and D are non-coplanar, then a space (
3-space) ABCD is the set of all points collinear with pairs of points
selected from any of the four faces (planar regions) of the
tetrahedron ABCD.
Axioms of ordered geometry
 There exist at least two points.
 If A and B are distinct points, there exists a C such that [ABC].
 If [ABC], then A and C are distinct (A≠C).
 If [ABC], then [CBA] but not [CAB].
 If C and D are distinct points on the line AB, then A is on the line CD.
 If AB is a line, there is a point C not on the line AB.
 (Axiom of Pasch) If ABC is a triangle and [BCD] and [CEA], then there
exists a point F on the line DE for which [AFB].
 Axiom of dimensionality:
 For planar ordered geometry, all points are in one plane. Or
 If ABC is a plane, then there exists a point D not in the plane ABC.
 All points are in the same plane, space, etc. (depending on the
dimension one chooses to work within).
 (Dedekind's Axiom) For every partition of all the points on a line into
two nonempty sets such that no point of either lies between two points
of the other, there is a point of one set which lies between every other
point of that set and every point of the other set.
Parallelism

Gauss, Bolyai, and Lobachevsky

developed a notion of parallelism
which can be expressed in
ordered geometry.
Theorem (existence of parallelism): Given a point A and a line r,
not through A, there exist exactly two rays from A in the plane Ar
which do not meet r. So there is a parallel line through A which does
not meet r.

Theorem (transmissibility of parallelism): The parallelism of a

ray and a line is preserved by adding or subtracting a segment
from the beginning of a ray.

The symmetry of parallelism cannot be proven in ordered

geometry[5]. Therefore, the "ordered" concept of
parallelism does not form an equivalence relation on
lines.
 Non-Euclidean
In mathematics, non-Euclidean geometry
describes hyperbolic and elliptic geometry,
which are contrasted with
Euclidean geometry. The essential difference
between Euclidean and non-Euclidean
geometry is the nature of parallel lines. Euclid
's fifth postulate, the parallel postulate, is
equivalent to Playfair's postulate, which
states that, within a two-dimensional plane,
for any given line l and a point A, which is not
on l, there is exactly one line through A that
does not intersect l. In hyperbolic geometry,
by contrast, there are infinitely many lines
through A not intersecting l, while in elliptic
geometry, any line through A intersects l.
(See the entries on hyperbolic geometry and
Another way to describe the differences
between these geometries is as follows:
Consider two straight lines indefinitely
extended in a two-dimensional plane that
are both perpendicular to a third line. In
Euclidean geometry the lines remain at a
constant distance from each other, and
are known as parallels. In hyperbolic
geometry they "curve away" from each
other, increasing in distance as one moves
further from the points of intersection with
the common perpendicular; these lines are
often called ultraparallels. In elliptic
geometry the lines "curve toward" each
other and eventually intersect.
 Concepts of non-Euclidean
geometry

Non-Euclidean geometry systems

differ from Euclidean geometry in
that they modify Euclid's fifth
postulate, which is also known as the
parallel postulate.
 In general, there are two forms of
(homogeneous) non-Euclidean geometry :

 Hiperbolic: In hyperbolic geometry there

are many more than one distinct line
through a particular point that will not
intersect with another given line
 In elliptic geometry there are no lines that
will not intersect, as all that start to
separate will converge. In addition,
elliptic geometry modifies Euclid's first
postulate so that two points determine at
least one line
 Models of non-Euclidean
geometry

 Elliptic geometry
The simplest model for elliptic geometry is a
sphere, where lines are "great circles"
(such as the equator or the meridians on a
globe), and points opposite each other are
identified (considered to be the same).
In the elliptic model, for any given line l and
a point A, which is furthest from l, all lines
through A will intersect l.
 Hyperbolic geometry
 Even after the work of Lobachevsky, Gauss, and
Bolyai, the question remained: does such a model
exist for hyperbolic geometry? The model for
hyperbolic geometry was answered by Eugenio
Beltrami, in 1868, who first showed that a
surface called the pseudosphere has the
appropriate curvature to model a portion of
hyperbolic space, and in a second paper in the
same year, defined the Klein model, the Poincaré
disk model, and the Poincaré half-plane model
which model the entirety of hyperbolic space, and
used this to show that Euclidean geometry and
hyperbolic geometry were equiconsistent, so that
hyperbolic geometry was logically consistent if
Euclidean geometry was. (The reverse implication
follows from the horosphere model of Euclidean
geometry.)
 In the hyperbolic model, for any given line l and a
point A, which is not on l, there are infinitely
many lines through A that do not intersect l.
 Absolute geometry

Absolute geometry is a geometry

based on an axiom system that does
not assume the parallel postulate or
any of its alternatives. The term was
introduced by János Bolyai in 1832.
[1] It is sometimes referred to as
neutral geometry[2], as it is
neutral with respect to the parallel
postulate.
 Relation to Other
Geometries
 The theorems of absolute geometry hold in some
non-Euclidean geometries, such as hyperbolic geometry, as
well as in Euclidean geometry.[3]
 Absolute geometry is inconsistent with elliptic geometry: in
that theory, there are no parallel lines at all, so Euclid's
parallel postulate can be immediately disproved; on the
other hand, it is a theorem of absolute geometry that
parallel lines do exist.[4]
 It might be imagined that absolute geometry is a rather
weak system, but that is not the case. Indeed, in
Euclid's Elements, the first 28 Propositions avoid using the
parallel postulate, and therefore are valid in absolute
geometry. One can also prove in absolute geometry the
exterior angle theorem (an exterior angle of a triangle is
larger than either of the remote angles), as well as the
Saccheri-Legendre theorem, which states that a triangle
has at most 180°
 Incompleteness
Absolute geometry is an incomplete
axiomatic system, in the sense that one
can add extra axioms without making the
axiom system inconsistent. One can
extend absolute geometry by adding
different axioms about parallel lines and
get incompatible but consistent axiom
systems, giving rise to Euclidean, ordered
and hyperbolic geometry. Thus every
theorem of absolute geometry is a
theorem of hyperbolic geometry,
Euclidean geometry and ordered
geometry. However the converse is not
true.