ANAPHYSIO

Anatomy
and
Physiology
The Human Body – An
Orientation
• Anatomy – study of the structure and

shape of the body and its parts
• Physiology – study of how the body and
its parts work or function
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 1.1

Anatomy – Levels of Study
• Gross Anatomy
• Large structures
• Easily observable
Figure 1.1
Slide
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
1.2a
Anatomy – Levels of Study
• Microscopic Anatomy
• Very small
structures
• Can only be
viewed with
a microscope
Figure 14.4
Slide
1.2b
Organ System Overview
• Integumentary
• Forms the external
body covering
• Protects deeper tissue
from injury
• Synthesizes vitamin D
• Location of cutaneous
nerve receptors
Figure 1.2a
• Skeletal
• Protects and supports
body organs
• Provides muscle
attachment for
movement
• Site of blood cell
formation
• Stores minerals
Figure 1.2b
• Muscular
• Allows locomotion
• Maintains posture
• Produces heat
Figure 1.2c
• Nervous
• Fast-acting control
system
• Responds to
internal and external
change
• Activates muscles
and glands Figure 1.2d
• Endocrine
• Secretes regulatory
hormones
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Metabolism
Figure 1.2e
• Cardiovascular
• Transports materials
in body via blood
pumped by heart
• Oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• Nutrients
• Wastes
Figure 1.2f
• Lymphatic
• Returns fluids to blood
vessels
• Disposes of debris
• Involved in immunity
Figure 1.2g
Slide
1.10
• Respiratory
• Keeps blood
supplied with
oxygen
• Removes carbon
dioxide
Figure 1.2h
Slide
1.11
• Digestive
• Breaks down food
• Allows for nutrient
absorption into blood
• Eliminates indigestible
material
Figure 1.2i
Slide
1.12
• Urinary
• Eliminates nitrogenous
wastes
• Maintains acid – base
balance
• Regulation of materials
• Water
• Electrolytes
Figure 1.2j
Slide
1.13
• Reproductive
• Production
of offspring
Figure 1.2k
Slide
1.14
Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Basic Chemistry
Biochemistry: Essentials for
• Life
Organic compounds
• Contain carbon
• Most are covalently bonded
• Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
• Inorganic compounds
• Lack carbon
• Tend to be simpler compounds
• Example: H2O (water)
Slide
2.21
Important Inorganic
Compounds
• Water
• Most abundant inorganic compounds
• Vital properties
• High heat capacity
• Polarity/solvent properties
• Chemical reactivity
• Cushioning
Slide
2.22
Important Inorganic
Compounds
• Salts
• Easily dissociate into ions in the
presence of water
• Vital to many body functions
• Include electrolytes which conduct
electrical currents
Slide
2.23
Important Inorganic
Compounds
• Acids
• Can release detectable hydrogen ions
• Bases
• Proton acceptors
• Neutralization reaction
• Acids and bases react to form water and a
salt
Slide
2.24
pH
• Measures relative
concentration of
hydrogen ions
• pH 7 = neutral
• pH below 7 = acidic
• pH above 7 = basic
• Buffers
• Chemicals that can
regulate pH change
Figure 2.11 Slide
2.25
Important Organic Compounds
• Carbohydrates
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Include sugars and starches
• Classified according to size
• Monosaccharides – simple sugars
• Disaccharides – two simple sugars joined
by dehydration synthesis
• Polysaccharides – long branching chains
of linked simple sugars
Slide
2.26
• Lipids
• Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Carbon and hydrogen outnumber oxygen
• Insoluble in water
Slide
2.29
• Proteins
• Made of amino acids
• Contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
Slide
2.33a
• Account for over half of the body’s organic

matter
• Provides for construction materials for
body tissues
• Plays a vital role in cell function
• Act as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
Slide
2.33b
Enzymes
• Act as biological catalysts
• Increase the rate of chemical reactions
Figure 2.16
Slide
2.34
• Nucleic Acids
• Provide blueprint of life
• Nucleotide bases
• A = Adenine
• G = Guanine
• C = Cytosine
• T = Thymine
• U = Uracil
• Make DNA and RNA
Slide
2.35
• Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
• Organized by
complimentary bases
to form double helix
• Replicates before
cell division
• Provides instruction
for every protein in
the body Figure 2.17c
Slide
2.36
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

• Chemical energy used by all cells
• Energy is released by breaking high energy
phosphate bond
• ATP is replenished by oxidation of food
fuels
Slide
2.37
Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Cells and Tissues

Cells and Tissues
• Carry out all chemical activities needed

to sustain life
• Cells are the building blocks of all living
things
• Tissues are groups of cells that are
similar in structure and function

Anatomy of the Cell
• Cells are not all the same
• All cells share general structures
• Cells are organized into three main
regions
• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Plasma membrane
Figure 3.1a
The Nucleus
• Control center
of the cell
• Contains genetic
material (DNA)
• Three regions
• Nuclear
membrane
• Nucleolus
• Chromatin Figure 3.1b

Cytoplasmic Organelles
Figure 3.4
Slide
3.10
Cellular Physiology:
Membrane Transport
• Membrane Transport – movement of

substance into and out of the cell
• Transport is by two basic methods
• Passive transport
• No energy is required
• Active transport
• The cell must provide metabolic energy
Slide
3.20
Solutions and Transport
• Solution – homogeneous mixture of two

or more components
• Solvent – dissolving medium
• Solutes – components in smaller quantities
within a solution
Slide
3.21
Passive Transport Processes
• Diffusion
• Particles tend to distribute themselves
evenly within a solution
• Movement is
from high
concentration
to low
concentration,
or down a
concentration
gradient
Figure 3.8
Slide
3.23
• Types of diffusion
• Simple diffusion
• Unassisted process
• Solutes are lipid-soluble materials or
small enough to pass through membrane
pores
• Facilitated
• Substances require a protein carrier
for passive transport Slide
3.24a
Diffusion through the Plasma
Membrane
Figure 3.9
Slide
3.25
Osmosis – simple diffusion of water

• Highly polar water easily crosses the
plasma membrane
Slide
3.24b
• Filtration
• Water and solutes are forced through a
membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
• A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing fluid is pushed from a
high pressure area to a lower pressure
area
Slide
3.26
Active Transport Processes
• Transport substances that are unable to pass

by diffusion
• Too large
• Insoluble
• Against a concentration gradient
• Two common forms of active transport
• Solute pumping
• Bulk transport
Slide
3.27
• Solute pumping
• Amino acids, some sugars & ions
• ATP energizes protein carriers,
Slide
3.28a
• Bulk transport
• Exocytosis
• Moves materials out of the cell
• Material is carried in a membranous vesicle
Slide
3.29a
• Bulk transport
• Endocytosis
• Extracellular substances are engulfed by
being enclosed in a membranous
vescicle
• Types of endocytosis
• Phagocytosis – cell eating
• Pinocytosis – cell drinking
Slide
3.30a
Cell Life Cycle
• Cells have two major periods
• Interphase
• Cell grows
• Cell carries on metabolic processes
• Cell division
• Cell replicates itself
• Function is to produce more cells for
growth and repair processes
Slide
3.31
Events of Cell Division
• Mitosis
• Division of the nucleus
• Results in the formation of two daughter
nuclei
• Cytokinesis
• Division of the cytoplasm
• Begins when mitosis is near completion
• Results in the formation of two daughter
cells
Slide
3.33
Stages of Mitosis
• Interphase
• No cell division occurs
• The cell carries out normal metabolic
activity and growth
• Prophase
• First part of cell division
• Centromeres migrate to the poles
Slide
3.34a
Stages of Mitosis
• Metaphase
• Spindle from centromeres are attached to
chromosomes that are aligned in the center
of the cell
Slide
3.34b
Stages of Mitosis
• Anaphase
• Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward
the poles
• The cell begins to elongate
• Telophase
• Daughter nuclei begin forming
• A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins
to form
Slide
3.35
Stages of Mitosis
Figure 3.14; 1
Slide
3.36a
Stages of Mitosis
Figure 3.14; 2
Slide
3.36b
Integumentary
system
The Integumentary
System
 The integumentary
system is
composed of the:
– Skin
– Appendages
 Largest organ of
the body
Functions of the
Integumentary system
 Gives shape to the body
 Protects the body from injury
 Serves as a barrier to infection
 Sensory reception
 Thermoregulation
 Maintenance of water balance
The EPIDERMIS
 Composed mainly of 4 layers:
> stratum corneum: outermost
> stratum granulosum: lucidum in
thick skin
> stratum spinosum
> stratum basale
 Nerves: found in the epidermis- for

pain and temperature sensation
 Blood vessels: Avascular

Epidermal Cell Types (4)
 1–
Keratinocytes
 2–
Melanocytes
 3 – Langerhans
 4 - Merckel
Keratinocytes
 most numerous
(85%)
 secrete keratin
 provides the
barrier function
of the epidermis
Melanocytes
 found in the
dermis and
basal layer of
the epidermis
 produce
melanin
 protect from UV
Langerhans cells
 members of the immune system,
and functioning as antigen-
presenting cells. Found in stratum
spinosum.
Merckel cells
 found in the basal layer and
functions as mechanoreceptors.
The DERMIS
 loose connective tissue, mainly

collagen and elastic and
reticular fibers
 blood vessels
 nerves
Two Dermal Layers
Subcutaneous Tissue
 Contains adipose tissue and
larger blood vessels and nerves
 May contain the base of hair
follicles and sweat glands
 Functions: caloric reserve, heat
insulator, shock absorber
Sweat glands – 2 types
 Eccrine: <
0.5mm diameter
 found anywhere
except penis
 Function in
thermoregulation
Sweat glands – 2 types
 Apocrine: 3-5mm
in diameter
 Modified sweat
gland
 found in the axillary,
areolar, anal regions
 secrete odor-
producing
discharges called
“pheromones”
 functional at
Sebaceous or Oil glands
 secrete sebum
 anywhere except on the
palms and soles
 lubricate hair follicles &
skin surface
 hyperfunctional at puberty
Hair
 arises from hair
follicles which are
epidermal
invaginations
 Associated arrector
pili muscle
causes
“goosebumps”
Nails
 like hair, are
modified stratum
corneum
 keratin of nails is
harder than that of
hair
 stratum basale of
the nail area
continuously
proliferates and
rapidly keratinizes
 white cuticle of nails
is called
eponychium
Pacinian corpuscle
 found within the
dermis and
hypodermis
 surround nerves
and look like
onions
 function as
mechanorecept
ors for pressure
& vibration.
Meissner’s corpuscles
 present in the
dermal papillae
 surrounds nerves
 function as
mechanorecepto
rs for fine touch

Musculoskeletal
System
Skeletal system
 206 bones
 Axial skeleton=
80
 Appendicular
skeletons= 126
upper limbs= 64
lower limbs= 62
functions
 Supportive framework
 Protect vital organs
 Hemopoiesis or blood cell
formation
 Storage of minerals
 Act as biomechanical levers
Types of Bone
 According to location:
 Axial – found along our midline axis
 Appendicular – found in our extremities
 According to shape:
 flat & irregular bones – many axial
bones
 long and short bones – in our limbs
 pneumatic bones – have air spaces, e.g.,
skull
 sesamoid – in tendons, e.g., patella
classification
 Based on dev’t.
2. Membranous
3. Cartilaginous
 Based on
histology
6. Compact
7. spong
Types of cells
 Osteoblast- precursor cells
 Osteoclast- bone destroyers
 Osteocytes- mature cells
Classification of joints
 Synarthroses- barely movable or
nonmovable
 Amphiarthroses- slightly movable
 Diarthroses- freely movable
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
*origin – immovable
*insertion – movable
 flexion - bending, decreasing the angle between 2

bones
 extension - straightening out, increasing the
angle between 2 bones
 abduction - moving the bone away from the
midline
 adduction - moving the bone toward the midline
 rotation - moving the bone around central axis
 circumduction - moving the bone so that the end
 supination - moving the bones of the forearm
so that the radius and ulna are
parallel, posterior to anterior
 pronation - moving the bones of the forearm
so that the radius and ulna are not
parallel, anterior to posterior position
 eversion - moving the sole of the foot
outward at the ankle and intertarsal joints
 inversion - moving the sole of the foot inward
at the ankle and intertarsal joints
 protraction - moving a part of the body
forward on a plane parallel to the ground
 retraction - moving a part of the body
backward on a plane parallel to the ground
 elevation - raising a part of the body
 depression - lowering a part of the body
 plantar flexion - pointing toes (as a ballerina)
away from the body
 dorsiflexion - pointing toes toward the body
 apposition – move thumb to touch fingertips
 Bone maintenance
3. Local stress-stimulates bone
formation
4. Vit. D- inc Ca by increasing GIT
absorption
5. PTH- inc blood Ca by inc bone
resorption
6. Calcitonin- inhibits bone
resorption
Bone repair
 Hematoma & inflammation (TGF-
B,PDGF)
 Angiogenesis and cartilage
formation
 Cartilage calcification
 Cartilage removal
 Bone formation(3-4 mos.)
 Remodeling( mos.-yrs)
Muscles
- tissue composed of fibers or
cells
- able to contract causing
movements
- Maintains posture
- Stabilizes joints
- Generates heat
- highly vascular, excitable,
conductive and elastic
TYPES OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
*tension develops in the muscles accdg

to the sliding filament model
1. isotonic - muscle shortens during
contraction ie smiling, bending the
knee
- successful sliding of
myofilaments
2.isometric - muscle does not shorten
during contraction ie lifting a 400
pound dresser, pushing against the
wall with bent elbows
- muscle unable to slide
Tendon
- attaches muscle to
bone
- provide durability
and conservation of
space
- made up of tough
collagenic fiber
ligament
– binds joints together, connects

articular bones and cartilage
cartilage
- non vascular tissue

- can be permanent or temporary
- found chiefly in the joints, thorax,
larynx and trachea
Bursae
- Sac containing fluid that are

located around the joints to
prevent friction
The Skull
 8 cranial
bones
 14 facial
bones
 6 small
bones in the
middle ear
Neurocranium
 Frontal
 Parietal
 Occipital
 Ethmoid
 Sphenoid
 Temporal
Viscerocranium
 Maxilla
 Nasal
 Zygomatic
 Mandible
 Vomer
 Lacrimal
 Palatine
 Inferior nasal
concha
skull
Sutures
 Coronal- bet. Parietal & frontal
bones
 Sagittal- bet. 2 parietal bones
 Lambdoid- bet. Parietal & occipital
 Bregma- intersection of coronal &

sagittal- ant. Fontanel
 Pterion- where sphenoid, parietal,
frontal & temporal bones converge
 TMJ
Fontanelles or soft
spots
 Fibrous connective
tissue or cartilage
that occur at the
angles of the
parietal bone
 Anterior – closes at
12-18 months
 Posterior – closes
at 3-4 months
The Auditory Ossicles
 sense vibration
 3 inner ear bones:
 malleus or hammer –
articulates with
eardrum
 incus or anvil –
articulates
with malleus & stapes
 stapes or stirrup –
articulates with oval
window
Face
 Scalp- frontalis & occipitalis
 Ear- auricular
 Orbital rim- orbicularis oculi
 Nose- nasalis
 Neck-platysma
 Lips- labii superioris,
zygomaticusdepressor labii/angularis,
buccinator, orbicularis oris
Neck
Bones
 Cervical vertebrae- atlas,axis &
C3-C7
 hyoid-
 Larynx
 cricoid
Neck
Anterior Triangle Posterior triangle

 internal jugular v.  Accessory n.
 Carotid a.  Branches of brachial
 Vagus n. plexus
 Hypoglossal n.  Subclavian a
 Hyoid ms.  Subclavian v.
 Submental nodes
The Vertebral Column or
Spine
 Supports the body &

bears its weight
 Regions:
– 7 cervical
– 12 thoracic
– 5 lumbar
– Sacrum
– Coccygeal
 S-shaped
 Vertebrae are
attached to each
other via synovial
joints & by
intervertebral discs
The Normal
Spine
 Has normal curves:
 lordosis – cervical, lumbar
concaving
 kyphosis – thoracic
convexity
 intervertebral discs –
maintain flexibility, absorb
shock; outer annulus
fibrosis, inner gelatinous
nucleus pulposus
 With age, loss of H2O

content causes decrease
in disc height
Thorax
 ribs
1-7= true
8-10= false
11-12= floating
 Sternum
Manubrium
Sternal angle of louis
Body of sternum
 Muscles
 Internal intercostals- ant, inf
 External intercoastals- post, inf
 Subcostalis
 Transversus thoracis
 12 pairs of thoracic nerves-
11 intercostal n., 1 subcostal n.
 Intercostal arteries-12 pairs of
post and ant, =11 inter, 1
subcostal
 Intercostal vessels
 Lymph drainage
Abdomen
 5 lumbar vertebrae
 Ilium- iliac fossa, tubercle & crest
 Pubis- symphisis, tubercle, crest
 Surface anatomy:
 Linea alba- fr xiphoid to pubis
 Linea semilunaris- bilateral, lat to rectus
abdominis
 Inguinal groove
 Muscles
Anterior
 Extrernal oblique- ant, inf
 Internal oblique-post, inf
 Transversus abdominis
 Rectus abdominis
Posterior
 Quadratus luborum
 Psoas major-chief flexor of hip
 Iliacus- joins psoas
 Transversalis fascia- lines abd cavity, deep

inguinal ring is an outpouching
Parts of the “Hip  Looks like two fish eating a
bone”
butterfly
 ASIS = anterior superior
iliac spine, important
landmark
 PSIS – lies deep to a dimple
 ischial tuberosity – part we
sit on
 symphysis pubis –
fibroelastic connection
between two pubic bones
 acetabulum – depression
for the head of the femur
 greater sciatic notch –
opening for sciatic nerve
 lesser sciatic notch
 obturator foramen – for
obturator nerve
 linea terminalis, or pelvic
brim – separates “false
pelvis” above from “true
Pelvis
 Pelvic girdle- anteriorly bounded by hip
bone, posteriorly by sacrum and coccyx
 Pelvic cavity
Major (false)- above pelvic brim
Minor (True)- below
 Pelvic diaphragm- muscular floor
Levator ani- pubococcygeus,
puborectalis, iliococcygeus
coccygeus
Female pelvis
 Broader and
more shallow
 Pelvic inlet is
larger & more
circular
 Ischial spines
are shorter
with greater
distance bet
them
 Greater angle
bet the pubic
bones
 Adapted for a
The Upper
Extremity
 Consists of 30
bones:
– Humerus – upper
arm
– Ulna - forearm
– Radius - forearm
– Carpal bones -
wrist
– Metacarpals -
palm
– Phalanges -
Upper Limb
Hand bones, Palm: Carpals
 8 short bones in 2
rows
 Proximal: (r-u)
scaphoid, lunate,
triquetrium, pisiform
 Distal: (r-u) trapezium,
trapezoid, capitate,
hamate
 “Scared Lovers Try
Positions That They
Can’t Handle”
 If you fall and land on
your hand, which bone
is most likely to
break?
 Colle’s fx = dinner fork
The Lower Extremity
 Consists of 30
bones:
– Femur – upper
leg or thigh
– Patella – or
kneecap
– Tibia & fibula –
lower leg or shin
– Tarsal bones –
back part of foot
& heel
– Metatarsals –
main part of the
Lower extremeties
Physiology of muscle
contraction
Quiz
1. This muscle Forms your buttocks

b. Gluteus
c. Sartorius
d. Vastus
e. brachii
2. Suture located between two
parietal bones
b. Sagittal
c. Lambdoid
d. Coronal suture
e. bregma
3. Injury to the radial nerve, will
cause this condition.
b. erb-duchenne
c. Klumpke’s
d. Scapular winging
e. Wrist drop
4. Bouchards nodes is found in
b. Distal IP joint
c. Proximal IP joint
d. Medial IP joint
e. Along the intertarsal joints

5. Patients who have well formed
rectus abdominis muscles have
distinct
b. Linea alba
c. Linea nigra
d. Linea semilunaris
e. Transversalis fascia
 This gland produces secretions
which are non viscous, non-
odorous
b. Eccrine
c. Appocrine
d. Sebaceous
e. prostate
7. Injury to this nerve will cause claw hand
deformity?
8. This layer of the epidermis can only be found in
thickened skin
9. The suture of the skull is an example of a______
type of joint?
d. Amphiarthroses
e. Diarthroses
f. Synarthroses
10. The anterior fontanel closes at 18 mos of age.
This structure becomes the ______.
h. Bregma
i. Lambdoid
j. Pterion
k. suture
The digestive system
The DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
 Alimentary tract composed
of organs, the primary
function of which is the
ingestion, digestion and
absorption of nutrients
The GIT
The wall is divided into
 Mucosa
 Submucosa
 Muscularis layer (inner circular

and outer longitudinal)
 and Serosa/adventitia
Fig. 16.2
GENERAL FUNCTIONS
 Ingestion of food into the
mouth
 Moves food along the
digestive tract
 Mechanically digests the food
into small particles
 Chemically digests the food
into simple molecules
 Absorbs nutrients into the
portal and lymphatic
circulation
The MOUTH
 Extends from the lips to

the orophaynx
 Initial digestion of
carbohydrates occurs
here (salivary amylase)
 Contains the teeth,
tongue, palate, salivary
Salivary glands
 1. Parotid= secretes purely
serous, Stensen’s duct
 2.Submandibular/submaxillay=
secretes mixed saliva, with
Wharton’s duct
 3. Sublingual= secretes mixed
saliva, with two ducts- duct of
Rivinus and duct of Bartholin
The Esophagus
 Muscular collapsible
tube extending from
the pharynx to the
stomach
 With upper
esophageal sphincter
and lower esophageal
sphincter
The GIT ANATOMY
The Esophagus
 The upper third contains skeletal
muscles
 The middle third contains mixed
skeletal and smooth muscles
 The lower third contains smooth
muscles and the esophago-
gastric/ cardiac sphincter is
found here
The Esophagus
Function:to propel
food to the stomach
The Stomach
 J-shaped
organ in the
epigastrium
 Contains four
parts- the
fundus, the
cardia, the
body and the
pylorus
 The cardiac
sphincter prevents
the reflux of the
contents into the
esophagus
 The pyloric
sphincter
regulates the rate
of gastric
emptying into the
duodenum

Cells in the stomach
 1. Mucus cells (mucus)

 2. Chief cells
( pepsinogen)
 3. Parietal Cells (IF,
HCl)
Small intestine
Characteristics:
 Provided with mesentery
 Presence of villi
 Presence of plicae
circularis
 Lined by simple columnar
Fig. 16.14
Parts of Small
Intestine
 1. DUODENUM- shortest
part
 2. Jejunum
 3. Ileum- longest part

Parts of Small
Intestine
 The intestinal glands secrete
digestive enzymes that finalize
the digestion of all foodstuff
 Enzymes for carbohydrates
disaccharidases
 Enzymes for proteins
dipeptidases and
aminopeptidases
 Enzyme for lipids intestinal
lipase
Large intestine
Characteristics
 Presence of haustra
 Presence of taenia coli
 Presence of appendices
epiploicae
 No villi
 With mesocolon on the
appendix, transverse colon
and sigmoid colon
Parts of the large
intestine
 Cecum
 Appendix
 Ascending colon
 Transverse colon
 Descending colon
 Sigmoid colon
 rectum
The GIT Physiology
 Absorbs water
 Eliminates wastes
 Bacteria in the colon
synthesize Vitamin K
 Appendix participates in the
immune system
Anus
 The anal canal is the

last portion of the
tract, surrounded by
an internal and
external anal
sphincter
The Peritoneum
 Serous membrane
lining the abdominal
cavity
 Parietal peritoneum-
abdominal wall
 Visceral peritoneum-
visceral organs
Fig. 16.3
The Peritoneum
 Retroperitonealorgans
are found posterior to
the peritoneum-
kidney, pancreas,
duodenum, ascending
and descending colon,
rectum
Mesentery
 Thisis a
peritoneum folded
upon itself
extending from the
organ to the
abdominal wall
Blood supply of the
GIT
 Branches of the
celiac trunk
 Left gastric artery
 Hepatic artery
 Superior mesenteric
artery
Accessory organs
Pancreas
 A pistol-shaped organ
both an endocrine and
exocrine gland
 Parts: head, body and
tail
 Ducts: major is
Pancreatic secretions
1. Bicarbonate- to
neutralize the acidic
chyme from the
stomach- stimulated
by secretin
2. Pancreatic amylase-
for carbohydrate
Pancreatic secretions
3. Pancreatic lipase-
for fat digestion
4. Trypsin and
chymotrypsin- for
protein digestion
Accessory organ
Liver
 Largest internal organ
 Located on the right

upper quadrant
 With right and left
lobes
Liver physiology and Pathophysiology
Normal Function Abnormality in function
1. Stores glycogen = Hypoglycemia
2. Synthesizes proteins = Hypo-proteinemia
3. Synthesizes globulins =Decreased Antibody formation

risk for INFECTION
4. Synthesizes Clotting = Bleeding tendencies
factors
5. Secreting bile = Jaundice and pruritus
6. Converts ammonia to =Hyper-ammonemia

urea
7. Stores Vitamims and =Deficiencies of Vit and min
minerals
8. Metabolizes estrogen = Gynecomastia, testes atrophy
Accessory organ
Gallbladder
 Pear-shaped organ on the
right upper quadrant below
the liver
 Parts: fundus, body and
neck
 store & concentrate bile
PHYSIOLOY
OF THE
GIT
Movements
Mouth and esophagus: Deglutition
 1. Voluntary phase- food bolus is
pushed by tongue to the pharynx
 2. Pharyngeal phase- reflex action
 3. Esophageal phase- peristaltic

waves moves the food towards the
stomach
Stomach movement
Mixing waves
Peristaltic
movements
Fig. 16.12
Regulation of stomach
secretions
1. Cephalic phase-
stomach secretions
are initiated by the
sight, smell, thought
and taste of food
secretions
2. Gastric phase-
secretions are
produced upon
stomach distention
secretions
3. Intestinal phase-
acidic chyme from the
stomach passes into
the duodenum
causing inhibition of
gastric secretions
Fig. 16.22
Large Intestine:
secretion and
movement
Mucus for mucosal
protection
Mass movement-
short peristaltic
movement
Large Intestine:
secretion and
movement
Defecation reflex- moves
the feces to the internal
anal sphincter, mediated
by the parasympathetic
nerves
Distention causes the
 End of GIT
1. Parts of the small intestine
includes all of the following
except
b. Duodenum
c. Jejunum
d. Ileum
e. sigmoid
2. Mechanical digestion of fats
occurs in
b. Mouth
c. Stomach
d. Small intestine
e. Large intestine
3. Chemical digestion of
carbohydrates occurs in
b. Mouth
c. Stomach
d. Small intestine
e. Large intestine
 This is released in response to
fatty food intake
b. Amylase
c. Cholecystokinin
d. Histamine
e. argentaffin
 All of the following are salivary
glands except
b. Parotid
c. Sublingual
d. Pharyngeal
e. submaxillary
 6. this cause gallbladder
contraction
b. Cholecystokinin
c. Secretin
d. Gastrin
e. Pepsinogen
7-11. name the four layers of the
stomach or GIT
12. patients w/ short gut syndrome
may suffer from
c. Megaloblastic anemia
d. Nutritional anemia
e. Iron-deficiency anemia
f. Cooley’s
13. The stomach chief cells secrete
b. IF
c. Pepsinogen
d. Bicarbonate
e. amylase
14. This is the most movable
portion of the intestine
b. rectum
c. Sigmoid
d. Appendix
e. anus
15. The following are functions of
the liver except
b. Synthesizes clotting factors
c. Stores glycogen
d. Stores bile
e. Synthesizes proteins
 Hypochloremic metab acidosis
 Hypercl metab acdosis
 Hypocl metab alkalosis
 Hypercl metab alkalosis
Urinary System
Major functions
 Eliminates wastes
 Controls blood and fluid
volume
 Regulates acid-base
balance
 Regulates RBC
production by
The Kidney
 Retroperitoneal organ
surrounded by capsule and fats
 renal cortex ( where nephrons
are located)
 renal medulla ( where collecting
ducts are found)
The Nephron
Functional unit of the kidney that
produces urine by filtration
Composed of
– Efferent arteriole
– Glomerulus
– Afferent arteriole
– Bowman’s capsule
– Convoluted tubules- proximal, loop of
Henle and distal
Special cells in the
nephron
Juxtaglomerular cells-
secretes renin and
erythropoietin
Podocytes
Blood supply of the
kidney
 Renal artery- branch of
the abdominal aorta
 Renal vein- drains into
the inferior venal cava
Renal pelvis
 Funnel-shaped expanded
portion of the ureter
 Formed by the calyces
 Collects urine from the

kidney
The Ureter
Left and right
 long slender tube
 w/ smooth muscles and

transitional epithelium
 w/ innervations from the
sympathetic and parasympathetic
The urinary bladder
 Hollow pyramid shaped organ
located in the pelvis
 Lined with transitional epithelium
 With thick detrusor muscles
Fig. 18.17
Urethra
 Tube extending from the urinary
bladder to the external urethral orifice
– 1 ½ inches in females
 3 parts in Males
1. Prostatic urethra- most dilatable
2. Membranous urethra- least dilatable and
shortest
3. Penile urethra- longest
Renal Physiology
Urine formation
 1. Urinary blood flow
 2. Glomerular filtration
 3. Tubular reabsorption
 4. tubular secretion
 Filtration- water and smaller
solutes
 Secretion- water, glucose and
amino acids
 Secretion- H, K, crea, drugs
Fig. 18.12
Fig. 18.13
Fig. 18.14
 End of renal
Reproductive System
Internal Male
reproductive organs
1. Testes
2. Ducts-
epididymis, vas
deferens and
ejaculatory duct
3. Glands- prostate
and Cowper’s
4. Seminal vesicle
The testes
 Male gonad housed in the scrotum

 Divided into lobules containing
tubules and cells
 Sperm cells are produced in the
seminiferous tubules
 Leydig cells secrete testosterone
Spermatogenesis
 Begins during puberty
 Occurs in the seminiferous
tubules
 Spermatogonia---MITOSIS ---
primary spermatocytes---
MEOSIS---secondary
spermatocyte---spermatids---go
to the epididymis---
spermatozoa
Ducts
1. Epididymis- coiled tube

2. Vas deferens- long tube from the
epididymis to the seminal vesicle
3. Ejaculatory duct- formed by the
union of the vas deferens and the
duct of the seminal vesicle
Glands
1. Prostate gland- glandular and
muscular tissue produces slightly
acidic fluid (20% of semen)
2. Seminal Vesicle- convoluted
pouch, secretes alkaline fluid and
fructose (bulk of the semen)
3. Cowper’s glands- secrete mucus
for lubrication
Fig. 19.5a
External genitalia
1. Scrotum- two chambered sac

contains the testes
2. Penis- erectile tissue consists
of two corpora cavernosa and
one corpora spongiosa
– With 3 parts- bulb, shaft and
glans
SEMEN:
– contains spermatozoa and fructose-rich
nutrients.
– During ejaculation, semen receives
contributions of fluid from
 Prostate gland
 Seminal vesicle
 Epididymis
 Bulbourethral gland
– Average pH = 7.5
– Ave. amt.= 2.5 -5 ml. It can live with in the
female genital tract for about 24 to 72 hours.
– (60-200 million/ml of ejaculation ave. of 400
million/ ejaculation )
– 90 seconds- cervix
– 5 minutes.- end of fallopian tube
Parts of the Female
reproductive system
 EXTERNAL (vulva)  INTERNAL
 1. Mons pubis  1. Ovary
 2. Labia majora  2. Fallopian tubes
 3. Labia majora  3. Uterus
 4. Clitoris  4. Vaginal canal
 5. Hymen
 6. Vestibule
 7. Pudendal cleft
The Internal organs
 OVARY
– Firm almond
shaped organ
covered by the
peritoneum
– Two parts:
– CORTEX- follicles
are found
– Medulla- connective
tissue
The internal organs
Fallopian tubes
 Bilateral ducts extends laterally from the
uterus
4 parts
1. Infundibulum- funnel shape, with
fimbriae
2. Ampulla- widest part; usual site of
FERTILIZATION
3. Isthmus- narrowest part
4. Interstitial or Intramural- embedded in
the uterine wall
FUNCTION: Transport of ovum
Fig. 20.2
The Uterus
 Pear-shaped organ with a cavity
3 main parts
1. Fundus- upper dome-shape part
2. Corpus or Body- broad part
3. Cervix- narrow lower part
– Isthmus- junction between the body
and the cervix
POSITION: Anteverted and
Anteflexed
The Uterus
The uterine wall is made up of three

layers
1. Epimetrium- superficial part
surrounded by the perimetrium
2. Myometrium- thickest muscular part
3. Endometrium- inner layer
 FUNCTION: Fetal development in
pregnancy
The endometrium
3 layers of the endometrium

1. Stratum Functionale
Stratum compactum
Stratum spongiosum
2. Stratum basale or
germinativum
Uterine ligaments
 Broad ligament
 Round ligament
 Cardinal ligament
 Utero-sacral ligament
Fig. 19.8
Vaginal canal
 Connects the cervix to the

vestibule
 Fibromuscular canal lined with
mucus and covered with hymen
 The remnant of hymen is called
CARUNCULAE MYRTIFORMIS
Function: organ of copulation and
passageway of baby
External genitalia
1. Vestibule- space between the
labia minora
2. Pudendal cleft- space
between the labia majora
3. Clitoris- erectile tissue,
homologue of penis
External genitalia
4. Labia majora- thick fold of

skin, homologue of scrotum
5. Labia Minora- thin fold of
skin devoid of hairs
6. Mons pubis/veneris- elevated
area above the labia
Mammary gland
Modified sweat gland

 Consists of glandular and adipose
tissue
 P-rolactin
 O-xytocin
 P-rogesterone
 E-strogen
 MENSTRUATION:
Menstrual cycle/ female
reproductive cycle- 30-80 cc
(60 cc ave.) of blood, epithelial
cells and mucus are being
discharged
 21-35 days
Maturation of Oocytes:
– first formed in utero - 5 to7 million;
– first 5 months in utero - 2 million
immature
oocytes per ovary
– at birth - 2 million in BOTH
ovaries
– 7 yrs of age only - 500,000/ovary
– 22y/o only - 300,000/ovary
– Reproductive age only - 300–400
oocytes
– Menopause - none
Fig. 19.14
The uterine cycle
Consists of 3 phases
2. Menstrual phase
3. Proliferative phase
4. Secretory phase
Uterine Cycle:
Menstrual phase
 Day 1- day 5
 Stratum functionale
(compactum and
spongiosum) is shed
Uterine cycle:
proliferative Phase
 Day 5- day 14
 Epithelial cells of functionale
multiply and form glands
 Due to the influence of
estrogen
Uterine cycle:
Secretory phase
 Day 15- day 28
 Endometrium becomes thicker and
glands secrete nutrients
 Uterus is prepared for implantation
 Due to progesterone
 If no fertilization constriction
vessels menstruation
OVARIAN cycle
Consists of three phases

 1. Pre-ovulatory : follicular
phase
 2. Ovulatory phase
 3. Post-ovulatory : Luteal
phase
Ovarian Cycle;
preovulatory/follicular
 Variable in length: day 6-
day 13
 Dominant follicle matures
and becomes grafian follicle
with primary oocyte
 FSH increases initially then
decreases because of
estrogen increase
Ovarian cycle:
Ovulatory phase
 Day 14
 Rupture of the grafian
follicle releasing the
secondary oocyte
 Due to the LH surge
 MITTELSCHMERZ- pain
during rupture of follicle
OVARIAN cycle: Post-
ovulatory: luteal phase
 Day 15- day 28
 MOST CONSTANT 14 days after
ovulation
 Corpus luteum secretes Progesterone
 If no fertilization, corpus luteum will

become corpus albicans then
degenerate
 Decreased estrogen and progesterone
Fig. 19.11
Hormonal cycle
1. Menstrual phase
– Decreased Estrogen, decreased
progesterone, decreased FSH and
decreased LH
2. Proliferative/ Pre-ovulatory phase
– Increased FSH and Estrogen in
small amounts
Hormonal cycle
3. Ovulatory phase
– Increased FSH, Increased LH
(surge) Increased Estrogen
4. Post ovulatory/luteal Phase
– Increased Estrogen,
increased progesterone,
decreased FSH and LH
 End of reproductive
1.What is the percent value of fluid
composition wt regards to total body
weight?
2.What is the smallest fluid
compartment?
c. ICf
d. ECF
e. Interstitial
f. Intravascular
3. passage of urine in the ureters is
done by
b. Peristalsis
c. Ciliary action
d. Gravity only
e. filtration
4. What Is the structural &
functional unit of the kidney
5. UTI often occurs in women due
to
c. Shorter ureter
d. Poor hygiene
e. Shorter urethra
f. Too much sweets in the diet
6. After ovulation, the ruptured
follicle
b. Becomes a corpus luteum
c. Replicates
d. Sloughs off as waste products
e. Heals
7. Most common site of ectopic
pregnancy
b. Abdominal
c. Tubal
d. Ovarian
e. cornual
 The most consistent phase in
the ovulatory phase
b. pre-ovulatory
c. Menstrual
d. Ovulatory
e. post-ovulatory
 Movement of solute from high to
low concentration
 Movement of solvent or water
from low solute concntration to
high concentration
Endocrine Sytsem
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Endocrine gland
Increased Hormones
ENDOCRINE GLANDS
 PITUITARY
 ADRENALS
 THYROID
 PARATHYROID
 PANCREAS
 OVARIES
 TESTES
Location of Major Endrocrine
Organs
Figure 9.3
Slide
9.14
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The Hypothalamus
 This part of the
DIENCEPHALON is
located below the
thalamus and is
connected to the
pituitary gland by a
The PHYSIOLOGY of the
Endocrine System:
Hypothalamus
Secretes
RELEASING
HORMONES for the
pituitary gland
 Releasing hormones=
hypothalamus
Endocrine System:
Hypothalamus
 Secretes OXYTOCIN
& Anti-Diuretic
Hormone or
VASOPRESSIN that is
stored in the
Posterior pituitary
gland
Pituitary gland
 Master gland
 Located at the base of the brain
 Influenced by the hypothalamus
 Directly affects the function of
other endocrine glands
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The Pituitary Gland
The optic chiasm
passes over this
structure
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The Pituitary Gland
 Is
divided into two
parts- the anterior or
adenohypophysis
and the posterior or
the neurohypophysis
Endocrine System:
Anterior Pituitary
Secretes the following:
 1. Growth hormone
 2. Prolactin
 Gonadotrophins- LH and FSH
 4. Stimulating hormones and
trophic hormones
– ACTH
– TSH
– MSH
Endocrine System:
Posterior Pituitary
Stores and releases
 1. OXYTOCIN
 2. ADH/Vasopressin
The PHYSIOLOGY of
the Endocrine System:
Thyroid
 Produces the thyroid
hormones by the thyroid
follicles:
1. Tri-iodothyronine or T3
2. Tetra-iodothyronine or
thyroxine or T4
The PHYSIOLOGY of
the Endocrine System:
Thyroid
 The Parafollicular
cells secrete
CALCITONIN
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The PARAthyroid glands
 Located at the back of
the thyroid glands
 Four in number
Endocrine System:
Parathyroid gland
 Secretes PARATHYROID
hormone (PTH) that
controls calcium and
phosphorus levels
 PTH is stimulated by a
DECREASED Calcium level
Endocrine System:
Parathyroids
Parathyroid Calcitonin is
Hormone is stimulated by
released in HYPERCALCEMIA
HYPOCALCEMIA
Parathyroid Calcitonin is
hormone is NOT inhibited by
secreted in HYPOCALCEMIA
HYPERCALCEMIA
The ANATOMY of the
Endocrine System
The Adrenal Glands
 Located above the
kidneys
 Composed of two parts-
the outer Adrenal Cortex
and the inner Adrenal
medulla
ADRENAL CORTEX
Secretes three types

of STEROID
hormones:
 1. Glucocorticoids-
like Cortisol,
cortisone and
corticosterone
Endocrine System:
Adrenal Cortex
 2. Mineralocorticoids-
like Aldosterone
 3. Sex hormones- like
estrogen and
testosterone
Endocrine System:
Adrenal Medulla
 Essentially a part of the
SYMPATHETIC autonomic
system
 Secretes Adrenergic
Hormones:
 1. Epinephrine
 2. Nor-epinephrine
 End of endo
Respiratory System
Respiratory Anatomy &
Physiology
 The respiratory system consists of
two main parts- the upper and the
lower tracts
Physiology
 The UPPER respiratory system
consists of:
 1. nose
 2. mouth
 3. pharynx
 4. larynx
Physiology
 The LOWER respiratory system
consists of:
 1. Trachea
 2. Bronchus
 3. Bronchioles
 4. Respiratory unit
Upper respiratory
tract
The Nose
 contains nasal bones and
cartilages and numerous hairs
called vibrissae
 There are numerous superficial
blood vessels in the nasal mucosa
The Nose
 The functions of the nose are:
 1. To filter the air
 2. To humidify the air
 3. To aid in phonation
 4. Olfaction
The pharynx
 The pharynx is a musculo-
membranous tube that is
composed of three parts
 1. Nasopharynx
 2. Oropharynx
 3. Laryngopharynx
The pharynx
 The pharynx functions :
 1. As passageway for both air and
foods (in the oropharynx)
 2. To protect the lower airway
Tonsils
 pair of prominent
masses of
lymphoid tissue
that are located
opposite each
other in the throat
The larynx
 Also called the voice box
 Made of cartilage and membranes
and connects the pharynx to the
trachea
The larynx
 Functions of the larynx:
 1. Vocalization
 2. Keeps the patency of the upper
airway
 3. Protects the lower airway
The paranasal sinuses
 These are four paired bony
cavities that are lined with nasal
mucosa and ciliated
pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
 Named after their location-
frontal, ethmoidal, sphenoidal and
maxillary
The paranasal sinuses
 The function of the sinuses:
Resonating chambers in
speech
The lower respiratory
system
 1. Trachea
 2. Main bronchus
 3. Bronchial tree
 4. Lungs- 3R/ 2L
 The trachea to the terminal bronchioles
is called the conducting airway
 The respiratory bronchioles to the
alveoli is called the respiratory acinus
The trachea
 A cartilaginous tube measures 10-
12 centimeters
 Composed of about 20 C-shaped
cartilages, incomplete posteriorly
The trachea
 The function of the trachea is to
conduct air towards the lungs
 The mucosa is lined up with
mucus and cilia to trap particles
and carry them towards the upper
airway
Lobes of the Lungs
 (R) lung = 3 lobes

- upper, middle,
lower
fissures:
horizontal, oblique
 (L) lung = 2 lobes
- upper with
lingula,
lower
fissure: oblique
The Bronchus
 The right and left primary bronchi
begin at the carina
 The function is for air passage
The primary bronchus
 RIGHT  LEFT BRONCHUS
BRONCHUS
 Narrower
 Wider  Longer
 Shorter  More horizontal
 More Vertical
The bronchioles
 The primary bronchus further
divides into secondary, then
tertiary then into bronchioles
 The terminal bronchiole is the last
part of the conducting airway
The respiratory Acinus
 The respiratory acinus is the chief
respiratory unit
 It consists of
 1. Respiratory bronchiole
 2. Alveolar duct
 3. alveolar sac
 The function of the respiratory
acinus is gas exchange through
the respiratory membrane
 The respiratory membrane is
composed of two epithelial cells
 1.The type 1 pneumocyte- most
abundant- where gas exchange
occurs
 2. The type 2 pneumocyte-
secretes lung surfactant
 A type III pneumocyte is just the
macrophage that ingests foreign
material and acts as an important
defense mechanism
Accessory Structures
The PLEURA
 Epithelial serous membrane lining the
lung parenchyma
 Composed of two parts- the visceral
and parietal pleurae
 Pleural space
The Thoracic cavity

 The chest wall composed of the
sternum and the rib cage
 The cavity is separated by the
diaphragm, the most important
respiratory muscle
Pleural Cavities
Costodiaphragmatic
recesses
: Spaces in the
pleural cavities
below each lung,
superior to the
diaphragm.
The Mediastinum
 The space between the lungs,
which includes the heart and
pericardium, the aorta and the
vena cavae.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS
OF THE Respiratory
System
 Gas exchange through
ventilation, external respiration
and cellular respiration
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide
transport
Mechanics of Ventilation
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
respiratory muscles Respiratory muscles relax
contract
(diaphragm,intercostal
m.) Decreased thoracic
diameter
increased thoracic
Increased pressure
diameter
Decreased pressure Air goes out
Air goes in
Respiratory Rate (RR)
 Inspiration-
expiration
cycle is
measured in
cpm (cycles
per minute)
 Normal adult
RR: 14-
20cpm
 Children 20-30
Regulation of Respiration
 RESPIRATORY  CAROTID AND AORTIC
CENTER in the CHEMORECEPTORS
BRAINSTEM.
- help regulate
- activated by dec breathing
ph - High [pCO2] or low
 CO2 + H20  [pO2] ---
H2CO3 chemoreceptors ---
medulla and pons to
inform the phrenic
nerve
 Phrenic nerve
stimulates the
diaphragm to contract
Breathing Patterns
 BIOTS:  CHEYNE-STOKES:
common but
breathing with usually abnormal
irregularly periods of apnea
alternating lasting 10-60
periods of apnea seconds followed
and hyperpnea by gradual
 e.g.meningitis increase then
and brain decrease
disorders that  e.g. frontal lobe
cause ⇑ ICP and diencephalic
dysfunction
Breathing Patterns
 COGWHEEL  KUSSMAUL
– – deep,
respiratory gasping
murmur, not breathing
continuous but
broken into
 e.g. diabetic
waves ketoacidosis and
 e.g. bronchitis coma
and possible TB
Circulatory System
Heart
 complex muscular
pump
 Size of a clenched fist
 Beats 60-100 per
minute
 The heart pumps about
7200 liters/day.
Layers of the wall
 Endocardium –
innermost
layer
 Myocardium –
middle,
thickest;
contracting
layer
 Epicardium –
outer layer
 Pericardium
-encloses
epicardium
2. Visceral
3. Parietal
 Pericardial sac
Anatomy of the heart
 4 chambers
 2 atria act as collecting
reservoirs.
 2 ventricles act as
pumps.
 4 valves for:
 Pumping action of
the heart.
 Maintaining
unidirectional blood
flow.
MUSCLES WITHIN THE
CHAMBERS
 PAPILLARY
MUSCLES -
found within the
chamber walls
 Extend into
CHORDAE
TENDINAE
attached to
valves
Blood Vessels
1. Right coronary
artery
a. posterior
interventricular
b. marginal artery
- RA, RV, inferior

portion of the LV, the
posterior septal wall
and AV (90%) and SA
2. Left coronary
artery
• anterior
interventricular
• circumflex arteries -
LA and the post. LV
• Left ant. descending
artery – ant. wall of
the LV, the anterior
septum and the
Apex of the left
ventricle
3. cardiac veins -drain into the
coronary sinus w/c in turn drain
into right atrium
Peripheral vascular
system
2 TYPES OF CONTROL
SYSTEMS OF THE
HEART:
1.Neural regulation – autonomic
nervous system
Sympathetic- accelerates &
strengthen heartbeat\
Parasympathetic- slows down
Conduction system
Electrical Conduction
System/Nodal
System
- network of nerve
fibers coordinate the
contraction and
relaxation of the
cardiac muscle tissue
to obtain an efficient,
wave-like pumping
action of the heart.
CARDIAC CYCLE
 sequence of events that occur
when the heart beats
 Systole- diastole cycle
BLOOD FLOW THROUGH THE
HEART
 Left LUNGS LA
mitral valve opens LV
mitral valve closes LV
muscles contract AV
opens aorta
distribution
 Right BODY RA

tricuspid valve opens
RV tricuspid valve
closes RV muscles
contract pulmonary
valves open lungs
HEART SOUNDS
 Aortic valve: second
ICS(intercostal space) R
PSL(parasternal line)
 Pulmonic valve:
second ICS L PSL
 Tricuspid valve: fourth
ICS L PSL
 Mitral valve: fifth ICS L
MCL(midclavicular line)
The Cardiovascular
System
The Heart sounds
 1. S1- due to closure of the AV
valves
 2. S2- due to the closure of the
semi-lunar valves
 3. S3- due to increased
ventricular filling
 4. S4- due to forceful atrial
contraction
Cardiac Output, Sroke
Volume
and Heat Rate
 STROKE VOLUME – amount of
blood ejected per heartbeat
 HEART RATE – affected by ANS,
baroreceptor activity,
cathecolamines, thyroid hormone
 CARDIAC OUTPUT
- amount of blood pumped out by
each ventricle in 1 minute
- product of heart rate and stroke
volume
STROKE VOLUME
1. Preload – degree of stretch at the end of
diastole
 Inc volume inc stretch inc preload
greater contraction and inc stroke volume
2. Afterload – amount of resistance to ejection

of blood from ventricle
 Also called systemic vascular resistance
 Inverse relationship with stroke volume
3. Contraction- force generated by

contracting myocardium
The vascular System
 arteries - vessels that
carry blood away from the
heart to the periphery
 veins -vessels that carry
blood to the heart
 capillaries are lined with
squamos cells, they
connect the veins and
arteries
The vascular System
 The lymphatic system

collects the extravasated
fluid from the tissues and
returns it to the blood
Blood Vessels: The Vascular
System
• Taking blood to the tissues and back

• Arteries
• Arterioles
• Capillaries
• Venules
• Veins
Slide
11.23
•BLOOD VESSEL: ANATOMY
•Three layers (tunics)
•Tunic intima
•Endothelium
•Tunic media
•Smooth muscle
•Controlled by sympathetic nervous
system
•Tunic externa
•Mostly fibrous connective tissue
Pulse
• Pulse –
pressure wave
of blood
• Monitored at
“pressure
points” where
pulse is easily
palpated
Figure 11.16
Slide
11.35
Blood components
Formed elements:
 RBC
 WBC
 Platelets
Unformed
 plasma
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
• The main function is to carry oxygen

• Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
• Biconcave disks
• Essentially bags of hemoglobin
• Anucleate (no nucleus)
• Contain very few organelles
• Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1
Slide
10.6
NV:
RBC:4.0-5.5 (F)
4.5-6.2 (M)
hgb:12-14 (F)
14-16 (M)
Hct- 35-45 (F) 42-

52 (M)
Hemoglobin
• Iron-containing protein
• Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
• Each hemoglobin molecule has four
oxygen binding sites
• Each erythrocyte has 250 million
hemoglobin molecules
Slide
10.7
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
• Crucial in the body’s defense against
disease
• These are complete cells, with a
nucleus and organelles
• Able to move into and out of blood
vessels (diapedesis)
• Can move by ameboid motion
• Can respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues
Slide
10.8
WBC
 NV- 5,000-10,000
1. granular leukocytes
a. neutrophil – 60-70%
- primary line of cellular
defense
against bacterial invasion
b. eosinophil – 2-5 %
- inc in allergic reaction
c. basophil – 0-1 %

-supplement function of mast
cells
2. agranular leukocytes
a. lymphocytes: B and T lymphocytes
20-30%
- respond to invasion of the body
by foreign substances and
organism, newer phagocytes
b. monocyte – 3-8%
c. Platelets/Thrombocytes
- 150,000 – 450,000 per cu mm
blood
- Thromboxane A2 – promotes
platelet plug formation
- Prostacyclin – limits formation of

platelet plug
Hematopoiesis
• Occurs in bone marrow

• All blood cells are derived from a
common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
• Hemocytoblast differentiation
• Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
• Myeloid stem cell produces other formed
elements
Slide
10.14
Fate of Erythrocytes
• Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize

proteins
• Wear out in 100 to 120 days
• When worn out, are eliminated by
phagocytes in the spleen or liver
• Lost cells are replaced by division of
hemocytoblasts
Slide
10.15
Control of Erythrocyte
Production
• Rate is controlled by a hormone
(erythropoietin)
• Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as
a response to reduced oxygen levels in
the blood
• Homeostasis is maintained by negative
feedback from blood oxygen levels
Slide
10.16
Developmental Aspects of
Blood
• Sites of blood cell formation
• The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of
blood cell formation
• Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by
the seventh month
Slide
10.31
RED CELL INDICES
 Mean corpuscular volume:
hematocrit/RBC
– 82 to 92 cubic microns; macrocytosis
or microcytosis; pernicious anemia
 Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH):
hemoglobin/RBC
– 27 to 31 picograms
 Mean corpuscular hemoglobin
concentration (MCHC):
hemoglobin/hematocrit
– 32 to 36 g/dL; hyperchromia or
hypochromia
Nervous system and
special senses
 PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS:
1. Central Nervous System
(CNS)
a. brain & the spinal cord
 control mechanism for the
entire organism
2. Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
a. 12 cranial nerves (CN)
b. 31 spinal nerves
c. autonomic nerves
a. sympathetic
b. parasympathetic
The Neuron
 functional unit
 dendrites – receive neural
msgs
& transmit towards cell
body
 axon – transmits neural
msgs
away from cell body
 cell body – contains nucleus,
mitochondria, & other
organelles
 myelin & cellular sheath
produced by Schwann
TYPES OF NEURONS
 Sensory neurons typically have a long
dendrite
and short axon, carry messages from
sensory receptors 
central nervous system.
 Motor neurons have a long axon and short

dendrites, transmit messages from
central nervous system muscles (or to
glands).
Nerves & Ganglia
 nerve – a large
bundle of axons
wrapped in CT
 tracts or pathways –
bundle of axons
within the CNS
 ganglia –
aggregation of
nerve cell bodies
w/in the PNS
 nuclei – collection of
cell bodies w/in the
CNS
Reflex Action
 simplest example of a neural
response
predictable, automatic response to
stimuli
 4 processes:
-reception of the stimuli,

- transmission of information,
-integration (interpretation &
determination of appropriate
 BRAIN
average human
brain weighs about
3 pounds (1300-
1400 g).
 At birth, the human
brain weighs less
than a pound
(0.78-0.88 pounds
or 350-400 g).
 The human brain
reaches its full size
at about 6 years of
age.
BRAIN
 2% of the body's weight,
it uses 20% of the
oxygen supply
 gets 20% of the blood
flow.
 If brain cells do not get
oxygen for 3 to 5
minutes, they begin to
die.
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
surrounds the brain.
Anatomy and
Physiology
I. THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
 a) concept of the dominant and
non dominant hemisphere.
 Left Right
 Dominant Non-dominant
 Language Spatial concepts
Calculation Recognition
of faces
Anatomy and
Physiology
Frontal Parietal Occipital Tempor
al
Learning Language Visual Audition
Intellect communicatio Imaging & &
Judgment n processing Memory
Values Speech
Calculation
Behavior
& Emotion Construction
Recognition
Anatomy and
Physiology
II. Basal Ganglia
 Cell bodies in white matter
 Smooth voluntary movement
III. Thalamus
 Relays sensory impulses to the
cortex
 Provides a pain gate
Anatomy and
Physiology
IV. Hypothalamus
 Regulates autonomic responses
(stress, sleep, appetite, body temp,
emotions)
 Responsible for production of
hormones secreted by the pituitary
V. Brainstem
V.1. midbrain
 Motor coordination
 Visual reflex and auditory relay
center
Anatomy and
Physiology
V.2. Pons
 Regulates breathing- resp. center
V.3. Medulla oblongata

 Contains efferent/afferent fibers
 Cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and

vasomotor center( bld. vessel
diameter)
Anatomy and
Physiology
VI. Cerebellum
 Coordinates sm muscle mov’t
 coordinates, posture, equilibrium and

muscle tone
VII. Spinal cord
 Starts from C1-L2
 Carries sensory and motor impulses
 Ave. length 45 cms. or 17 inches

Spinal Cord
 Spinal nerves
 31 pairs
 Posterior roots- Efferent(motor)
 Anterior roots- Afferent(sensory)
HYDROCEPHALUS - congenital
anomaly inc amount of CSF in
ventricles.
Peripheral Nervous
System
 made up of the sense organs,
the sensory neurons, & the
nerves that link the CNS with the
effectors
 2 systems:
 somatic system – responsible for
body balance in relation to outside
world
 autonomic system – responsible for
internal body balance
all Nerves
 12 pairs emerge
from the brain
 transmit
information from
sense receptors to
the brain
 I-olfactory- sensory for
smell
 II- optic-sensory for vision
 III-oculomotor- motor to
SR,IR,MR &IO; to internal
eye ms which controls lens
shape and pupil size
 IV- motor to SO
 VI- motor to LR
 V- Trigeminal-sensory to
 VII-Facial- motor to mS of facial
expression, senory to taste(ant.
Tongue)
 VIII- sensory to hearing and balance
 IX- glossopharyngeal- motor to
pharynx & saliva production, sensory
to tase( post. Tongue)
 X- Vagus- sensory & motor to
pharynx, larynx, abdominal and
thoracic viscera
 XI- Accessory- motor to
sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
Comparison of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Actions on Selected Effectors
Sympathetic Action Parasympathetic Action

Effector
Heart Increases rate and strength of Decreases rate; no direct
contraction effect on strength of
Bronchial Dilates contraction
Constricts
tubes
Iris of eye Dilates (pupil becomes larger) Constricts (pupil becomes
Sex organs Constricts blood vessels; smaller)
Dilates blood vessels; erection
Blood vessels ejaculation
Generally constricts No innervation for many
Sweat glands Stimulates No innervation
Intestine Inhibits motility Stimulates motility and
Liver Stimulates glycogen breakdown secretion
No effect
metabolism
Adipose tissue Stimulates free fatty acid No effect
release from fat cells
Adrenal Stimulates secretion of No effect
medulla epinephrine and norepinephrine
Salivary Stimulates thick, viscous Stimulates profuse, water
glands secretion secretion
senses
External
Anatomy
of the Eye
EYE structures
10. vitreous
1. Pupil chamber
2. Conjunctiva 11. vitreous
3. Cornea humor
4. Sclera 12. Retina
5. Choroid 13. rods &
6. Iris cones
7. Ciliary body 14. optic nerve
8. Lens 15. optic disc
16. macula
9. aqueous
chamber 17. fovea
centralis
CORNEA
the transparent,
avascular layer that
covers the iris & the
pupil at the front of
the eye
frequently referred
to as the window of
the eye
function: to bend, or
refract the rays of
the light
Sclera
 the white of the

eye
 tough, fibrous,
connective tissue
that extends from
the cornea on the
anterior surface of
the eyeball to the
optic nerve
Choroid
 a layer inside the
sclera made of
black pigment
cells that absorb
light rays so that
they are not
reflected back
 rich in blood
vessels that
supply nutrients
to the eye
Iris
 the colored portion
of the eye that
surrounds the pupil
 smooth ms constrict
the pupil in bright
light & vice-versa
 color is determined
by the amount of
pigment present
(blue has the least,
brown has the most)
Ciliary Body And Lens
 located on each side

of the lens, contains
ms that can adjust
the shape &
thickness of the lens
 lens is a clear,
crystalline body that
may be thinned or
flattened for distant
vision & thickened for
close vision
 refractive power of
the lens is called
accommodation
Anterior & Vitreous
Chamber
 the lens lies at the
rear of the anterior
chamber filled with a
fluid called aqueous
humor that maintains
shape & nourishes the
structures within
 behind the lens is the
vitreous chamber that
is filled with a soft,
jelly-like material, the
vitreous humor
Retina
 the thin, delicate, and sensitive nerve
layer of the eye
 contains specialized sensory cells, the
rods & cones
– rods: 120M, for vision in dim light or
darkness & peripheral vision
– cones: 6.5M, for vision in bright light, color
vision, & central vision
 cones are most concentrated in the
fovea centralis and is the region of
sharpest vision
Optic Nerve & Disc
 light energy, when
focused on the
retina, causes a
chemical change in
the rods & cones
 nerve impulses
travel to the brain
via optic nerve
 region where optic
nerve meets the
retina is called
optic disc ( also
known as blind
spot due to
absence of rods &
cones)
Extraocular muscles of the Eye
Eye
Ears
Eustachian Tube
 connects the middle
ear & the external
environment
through the throat
 equalizes the
pressure on the two
sides of the
eardrum
 susceptible to
bacterial infection
 middle ear
Nose
Nose
TASTE
 The sense of taste is perceived through the
taste buds on the tongue and in various
parts of the mouth.
 average of 10,000 taste buds in the normal
adult mouth. As an individual gets older the
number of taste buds gradually decreases.
 The taste buds are able to discriminate
among four primary tastes: sweet, sour,
salty, and bitter.
 Both the facial (CN VII) and the
glossopharyngeal (CN IX) nerves transmit
the sensory input to the brain.
Test
1. A px has doubling of vision. The image is
farthest apart when she looks downward and
to the left. PE showed her R eye can move
directly to the left. but when it faces directly to
the medial, it can not move downward. Which
muscle of her R eye is not working properly?
b. Superior rectus
c. Inferior rectus
d. Superior oblique
e. Inferior oblique
f. Lateral rectus
2. All of the following statements reg
cavernous sinus are correct except
b. It lies immediately lateral to pituitary
c. Lies immediately medial to frontal
lobe
d. Drain blood fr facial vein
e. IJV can drain blood fr the cavernous
sinus
3. Injury or infection to this triangle
is considered dangerous because
it can cause thrombosis
b. Codmans triangle
c. Pott’s triangle
d. Cavernous sinus
e. Glenoid fossa
4. The jaw jerk is a DTR. It tsts
sensory fibers of the
b. CN V
c. Facial nerve
d. CN IX
e. CN X
f. CN VI
5. Palpation of masseter ms assess
motor fibers of
b. CN V
c. Facial nerve
d. CN IX
e. CN X
f. CN VI
Match the following
6. Macula a. Otolithic membrane

7. Tectorial membrane b. Organ of corty
8. B & W vision c. Cristae ampularis
9. Color vision d. Rods
10. cupula e. cones
11. During mirror laryngoscopy, an
examiner notes paralysis of the
right vocal cord. This indicates
paralysis of muscles innervated
by the
b. CN V
c. CN VII
d. CN IX
e. CN X
12. The patient is asked to stick out
her tongue and left deviation of
uvula and soft palate is noted.
This is most probably due to
injury to
b. Left vagus nerve
c. Left accessory nerve
d. Right accessory
e. Left glossopharyngeal
13. visual accomodation is due to
b. Relaxation of iris muscles
c. Inc tension of lens ligament
d. Dec in curvature of lens
e. Contraction of ciliary muscles

14. The portion of ventricular system
found at the level of the brainstem
is the
• 3rd ventricle
• 4th ventricle
• Lateral ventricle
• Subarachnoid
15. A px showed blindenss of right
eye. This is due to compromise of
which branch of internal carotid
artery?
b. Lenticulostriate
c. Ophthalmic
d. Middle cerebral
e. Anterior cerebral
16. Occlusion of which artery would
most severely compromise the
blood supply to the visual cortex?
b. Anterior cerebral
c. Middle cerebral
d. Posterior cerebral
e. Ophthalmic artery
17. Absence of corneal reflex indicate
involvement of the
b. CN III
c. CN IV
d. CN V
e. CN VII
18. Loss of taste on the anterior 2/3
of the tongue indicates damage
to the
b. CN V
c. CN VII
d. CN IX
e. CN XII
19. Spina bifida is defined as
b. Failure of formation of meninges
c. Failure of closure of spinal

column
d. Dual spine
e. Failure of neural tube

morphogenesis
20. Neural tube defects in newborn
may result from____ of the mother
b. Folic acid deficiency
c. Infection
d. Trauma
e. Abnormal curvature of spine

21. Disease or dysfunction of this is
implicated in Parkinsons
b. Medial geniculate nucleus
c. Substantia nigra
d. Cerebellum
e. Spinothalamic tracts
22. Disease or dysfunction in the
production or release of this is
implicated in Parkinsons
b. Serotonin
c. Dopamine
d. Acetylcholine
e. adrenalin
23. Characteristics of an upper motor
neuron lesion except
b. (+)Babinski
c. Exagerrated DTRs
d. Hypertonia
e. Spastic paralysis
f. astereognosis
24. Paralysis and atrophy of the
tongue is most likely due to the
damage
b. CN V
c. CN VII
d. CN X
e. CN XII
25. Innervation of upper eyelid,
which raises it
b. CN III
c. CN IV
d. CN VI
e. CN IX
 Patient is able to hear but can not
speak. This is what type of
aphasia
b. broca’s
c. Wernicke’s
d. Alexia
e. Conduction aphasia
 Patient is able to speak but can
not hear & understand. This is
what type of aphasia
b. broca’s
c. Wernicke’s
d. Alexia
e. Conduction aphasia
28. Normal CSF Volume
29. Normal IOP?
30. Posterior root compression will
involve –Motor or sensory or
mixed
Post test
1. visual accomodation is due to
b. Relaxation of iris muscles
c. Inc tension of lens ligament
d. Dec in curvature of lens
e. Contraction of ciliary muscles
2. Motor function of extensor ms of forearm &
arm by which of this
g. Radial
h. Ulnar
i. Median
j. axillary
3. Prime mover for plantar flexion of
foot muscles.”toe dancers”
b. Soleus
c. Gastrocnemius
d. peroneus
e. Achilles tendon
4. Forms most of the buttocks
muscles
g. Psoas
h. Gluteus
i. Quadratus
j. Adductor longus
5. When you stick your thumb out( approve
sign), what movement of the thumb are
you doing
b. Etension
c. Flexion
d. Adduction
e. Apposition
6. After Ach attaches to its receptors at NMJ
the next step is
g. Na channel open
h. Cross bridges formation
i. Ca binds to regular protein

j. Myosin head is exposed
7. example of pivot joint
a. radio-ulna
b. Carpal
c. carpal-metacarpal
d. Shoulders
8. Correct match
g. short- wrist
h. Long-leg
i. Flat- cranium
j. Irregular-sternum
9. Bone pain behind external auditory
meatus probably involves
b. Maxilla
c. Sphenoid
d. Temporal
e. Lacrimal
10. Anatomical landmark for Lumbar

puncture
g. Coccyx
h. Sacrum
i. Symphisis pubis
11. Freshly oxygenated blood is first
received by
b. RV
c. LV
d. RA
e. LA
12. Fats in atherosclerosis deposits in

g. Tunica media
h. Tunica intima
i. Tunica Adventitia
j. Tunica externa
13. In inhalation, the diaphragm
b. retracts, moves inferior
c. Retracts, moves superior
d. Contracts, moves inferior
e. Contracts, moves superior
14. All of the following are classified as

COPD except
g. Pneumonia
h. Emphysema
i. Bronchitis
j. Sleep apnea
15. Chemical digestion of fats occurs
where
b. Mouth
c. Stomach
d. Small intestine
e. Large intestine
16. Movement of thumb or fingers when

picking up a pen
g. Extension
h. Flexion
i. Apposition
18. Chemical digestion of carbohydrates
occurs in
b. Mouth
c. Stomach
d. Small intestine
e. Large intestine
19. CCk release leads to
g. Contraction of duodenal papillae
h. Contraction pf gallbladder
i. Inc. liver secretions

j. Inc. pancreatic secretions
20. Hormones that act to dec blood
glucose
b. Insulin
c. Glucagon
d. Epinephrine
e. Growth hormone
21. The endometrium is the
g. Inner layer
h. Middle layer
i. Outer layer
j. Outermost layer
22. This is the area between the anus and
clitoris
b. Peritoneum
c. Perineum
d. Vulva
e. Labia
23. Which of the following is true

g. Only 1 primary follicle is stimulated
h. 1 vesicular follicle undergoes ovulatio
i. 1 follicle secretes estrogen

j. Only 1 ovary is stimulated
24. Hypertension may result from
hypersecretion of
b. Thyroxine
c. Cortisol
d. Aldosterone
e. Glucagon
25. ANP has opposite effect to which

hormone
g. Aldosterone
h. Epinephrine
i. Acetylcholine
j. testosterone
Match the following
26. Macula a. Otolithic membrane

27. Tectorial membrane b. Organ of corty
28. B & W vision c. Cristae ampularis
29. Color vision d. Rods
30. cupula e. cones
31-32. The abdominal aorta gives two
main branches to supply the lower
limbs. What are those two
branches?
33-36. The aortic arch gives 3 main
branches which supplies the upper
extremities. What are those 3
branches?
37. Px was diagnosed wt dengue
fever. It is mandatory to check
the platelet count of patients with
this disease. As you recall, the
Normal platelet count is
b. 100-200
c. 150-450
d. 200-400
e. 300-550
38. A 40/F Patient was diagnosed with
nutritional anemia. The expected lab
finding should be
b. Hgb- <12
c. >12
d. Hct>45
e. Hct<55
39. Neutropenic precautions or reverse
isolation should be implemented if
g. plt count is < 200
h. WBC is < 5000
i. RBC is < 40
j. Patient has thrombocytosis
 40. CVP is a measure of your
preload. The normal CVP is
b. 4-10 cm H20
c. 2-4 cm H20
d. 10-15 cm H20
e. 12-19 cm H20
Remember,
you can’t
steal second
if you don’t
take your
foot off
first…...
mike
todd

ANAPHYSIO

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

ANAPHYSIO

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Anatomy

• Anatomy – study of the structure and

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 1.1

• Account for over half of the body’s organic

• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Cells and Tissues

• Carry out all chemical activities needed

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 3.1

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 3.3

• Membrane Transport – movement of

• Solution – homogeneous mixture of two

Osmosis – simple diffusion of water

• Transport substances that are unable to pass

 Nerves: found in the epidermis- for

 Blood vessels: Avascular

 loose connective tissue, mainly

 flexion - bending, decreasing the angle between 2

*tension develops in the muscles accdg

– binds joints together, connects

- non vascular tissue

- Sac containing fluid that are

 Lambdoid- bet. Parietal & occipital

 Bregma- intersection of coronal &

 3 inner ear bones:

Anterior Triangle Posterior triangle

 Carotid a.  Branches of brachial

 Hyoid ms.  Subclavian v.

 Supports the body &

 With age, loss of H2O

 Internal oblique-post, inf

 Psoas major-chief flexor of hip

 Iliacus- joins psoas

 Transversalis fascia- lines abd cavity, deep

1. This muscle Forms your buttocks

e. Along the intertarsal joints

 Muscularis layer (inner circular

 Extends from the lips to

 1. Mucus cells (mucus)

 3. Ileum- longest part

 The anal canal is the

 Located on the right

1. Stores glycogen = Hypoglycemia

2. Synthesizes proteins = Hypo-proteinemia

3. Synthesizes globulins =Decreased Antibody formation

6. Converts ammonia to =Hyper-ammonemia

 3. Esophageal phase- peristaltic

 Collects urine from the

 w/ smooth muscles and

 Male gonad housed in the scrotum

1. Epididymis- coiled tube

1. Scrotum- two chambered sac

The uterine wall is made up of three

3 layers of the endometrium

 Connects the cervix to the

4. Labia majora- thick fold of

Modified sweat gland

Consists of three phases

 If no fertilization, corpus luteum will

d. Sloughs off as waste products

Secretes three types

 (R) lung = 3 lobes

The Thoracic cavity

Decreased pressure Air goes out