BUILDING TECHNOLOGY I

1.

GLASS AND GLAZING

Glass is a hard, brittle, chemically inert substance produced by fusing silica together with a flux and a stabilizer into a mass that cools to a rigid condition without crystallization. It is used in building construction in various forms. Foamed or cellular glass is used as rigid, vapor proof thermal insulation. Glass fibers are used in textiles and for material reinforcement. In spun form, glass fibers form glass wool, which is used for acoustical and thermal insulation. Glass block is used to control light transmission, glare, and solar radiation.

Glass, however, is used most commonly to glaze the window, sash and skylight openings of buildings.

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GLASS AND GLAZING

The three major types of flat glass are the following:

Sheet glass is fabricated by drawing the molten glass from a furnace (drawn glass), or by forming a cylinder, dividing it lengthwise, and flattening it (cylinder glass). The firepolished surfaces are not perfectly parallel, resulting in some distortion of vision. To minimize this distortion, glass should be glazed with the wave distortion running horizontally. Plate glass is formed by rolling molten glass into a plate that is subsequently ground and polished after cooling. Plate glass provides virtually clear, undistorted vision. Float glass is manufactured by pouring molten glass onto a surface of molten tin and allowing it to cool slowly. The resulting flat, parallel surfaces minimize distortion and eliminate the need for grinding and polishing. Float glass is the successor to plate glass and accounts for the majority of flat-glass production.

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GLASS Other types of glass include the following: Annealed glass is cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses. Heat-strengthened glass is annealed glass that is partially tempered by a process of reheating and sudden cooling. Heat-strengthened glass has about twice the strength of annealed glass of the same thickness. Tempered glass is annealed glass that is reheated to just below the softening point and then rapidly cooled to induce compressive stresses in the surfaces and edges of the glass and tensile stresses in the interior. Tempered glass has three to five times the resistance of annealed glass to impact and thermal stresses but cannot be altered after fabrication. When fractured, it breaks into relatively harmless pebble-sized particles. Laminated or safety glass consists of two or more plies of flat glass bonded under heat and pressure to interlayers of polyvinyl butyral resin that retains the fragments if the glass is broken. Security glass is laminated glass that has exceptional tensile and impact strength.

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GLASS other types Wired glass is flat or patterned glass having a square or diamond wire mesh embedded within it to prevent shattering in the event of breakage or excessive heat. Wired glass is considered a safety glazing material and may be used to glaze fire doors and windows. Patterned glass has a linear or geometric surface pattern formed in the rolling process to obscure vision or to diffuse light. Obscure glass has one or both sides acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure vision. Either process weakens the glass and makes it difficult to clean. Spandrel glass is an opaque glass for concealing the structural elements in curtain wall construction, produced by fusing a ceramic frit to the interior surface of tempered or heat-strengthened glass. Insulating glass is a glass unit consisting of two or more sheets of glass separated by a hermetically sealed air space to provide thermal insulation and restrict condensation; glass edge units have a 3/16 (5) air space; metal edge units have a or (6 or 13) air space.

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GLASS other types Tinted or heat-absorbing glass has a chemical admixture to absorb a portion of the radiant heat and visible light that strike it. Iron oxide gives the glass a pale blue-green tint; cobalt oxide and nickel impart a grayish tint; selenium infuses a bronze tint.

Reflective glass has a thin, translucent metallic coating to reflect a portion of the light and radiant heat that strike it. The coating may be applied to one surface of single glazing, in between the plies of laminated glass, or to the exterior or interior surfaces of insulating glass.

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GLASS other types Low-emissivity (low-e) glass transmits visible light while selectively reflecting the longer wavelengths of radiant heat, produced by depositing a low-e coating either on the glass itself or over a transparent plastic film suspended in the sealed air space of insulating glass.

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Glass Product

GLASS
Type Nominal Thickness inch (mm) (2.4) (3.2) (6.4) (3.2) (6.4) (7.9) (9.5) (12.7) (15.9) (19.1) (22.2) (3.2) (5.6) (6.4) (6.4) (5.6) (6.4) (9.5) (6.4) (9.5) (12.7) (15.9) Maximum Area inches 60 x 60 60 x 80 75 sf 74 x 120 128 x 204 124 x 200 124 x 200 120 x 200 120 x 200 115 x 200 115 x 200 60 x 132 60 x 132 60 x 144 60 x 144 54 x 120 60 x 144 60 x 144 72 x 120 72 x 120 72 x 120 72 x 120 (mm) (1525 x 1525) (1525 x 2030) (7 m2) (1880 x 3050) (3250 x 5180) (3150 x 5080) (3150 x 5080) (3050 x 5080) (3050 x 5080) (2920 x 5080) (2920 x 5080) (1525 x 3355) (1525 x 3355) (1525 x 3660) (1525 x 3660) (1370 x 3050) (1525 x 3660) (1525 x 3660) (1830 x 3050) (1830 x 3050) (1830 x 3050) (1830 x 3050) Weight psf* 1.22 1.63 3.28 1.64 3.28 4.10 4.92 6.54 8.17 9.18 11.45 1.60 2.40 3.50 3.50 2.82 3.50 4.45 3.30 4.80 6.35 8.00
* Verify maximum sizes with glass manufacturer *Any glass 1/8 or thicker can be tempered, except for patterned or wired glass; tempered glass can also be incorporated into insulating or laminated glass units * Reflective coatings may be applied to float, plate, tempered, laminated or insulating glass

Sheet Glass Float or Plate Heavy Plate Float or

AA, A, B Mirror Glazing Glazing

SS 3/32 DS 1/8 1/8 5/ 16 3/8 5/8 7/8 1/8 7/32 7/32 3/8 3/8 5/8

Patterned Glass Wired Glass

Various patterns Polished-mesh Patternedmesh Parallel wires (2) 1/8 float Heavy float

Laminated Glass

*1 psf = 47.88 Pa

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Glass Product

GLASS
Type Nominal Thickness
inch (mm)

Maximum Area
inches (mm)

Weight
psf*

Tinted Glassd

Bronze Gray

1/8 3/16 3/8 1/8 3/16 3/8 1/2

(3.2) (4.8) (6.4) (9.5) (12.7) (3.2) (4.8) (6.4) (9.5) (12.7)

35 sf 120 x 144 128 x 204 124 x 200 120 x 200 35 sf 120 x 144 128 x 204 124 x 200 120 x 200

(3 m2) (3050 x 3660) (3250 x 5180) (3150 x 5080) (3050 x 5080) (3 m2) (3050 x 3660) (3250 x 5180) (3150 x 5080) (3050 x 5080)

1.64 2.45 3.27 4.90 6.54 1.64 2.45 3.27 4.90 6.54

* Solar energy transmission reduced 35% to 75% Visible light transmission reduced 32% to 72%

Insulating Glass (2) 3/32 sheets (2) 1/8 sheets (2) 1/8 Sheet, plate or float (2) 3/16 Plate or float (2) Plate or float

Glass edge units 3/16 air space 3/16 air space Metal edge units air space air space air space air space air space air space

3/8 7/16
5/8 7/8 1

(9.5) (11.1)
(12.7) (19.1) (15.9) (22.2) (19.1) (25.4)

10 sf 24 sf
22 sf 22 sf 34 sf 42 sf 50 sf 70 sf

(0.9 m2) (2.2 m2)

(2.0 m2) (2.0 m2) (3.2 m2) (3.8 m2) (4.6 m2) (6.5 m2)

2.40 3.20
3.27 3.27 4.90 4.90 6.54 6.54

* R-value = 1.61 * R-value = 1.61 * R-value = 1.72 * R-value = 2.04 * R-values for units w/ air space and low-e coating: e = 0.20, R = 3.13 e = 0.40, R = 2.63 e = 0.60, R = 2.33

*1 psf = 47.88 Pa

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HARDWARE NAILS

Nails are straight, slender pieces of metal having one end pointed and the other enlarged and flattened for hammering into wood or other building materials as a fastener.
Material Nails are usually of mild steel, but may also be of aluminum, copper, brass, zinc or stainless steel. Tempered, high-carbon steel nails are used for greater strength in masonry applications. The type of metal used should be compatible with the materials being secured to avoid loss of holding power and prevent staining of the materials. Length and Nail lengths are designated by the term penny (d). Diameter of Nails range in length from 2d, about 1 (25) long, to 60d about 6 (150) long the Shank Nail length should be about 3 x thickness of the material being secured Large diameter nails are used for heavy work while lighter nails are used for finish work; thinner nails are used for hardwood rather than for softwood.

2. 2.01 Form of the Shank

HARDWARE NAILS For greater gripping strength, nail shafts may be serrated, barbed, threaded, fluted or twisted. Nail shafts may be cement-coated for greater resistance to withdrawal, or be zinc-coated for corrosion resistance. Flat heads provide the largest amount of contact area and are used when exposure of the heads is acceptable. The heads of finish nails are only slightly larger than the shaft and may be tapered or cupped. Double-headed nails are used for easy removal in temporary construction and concrete formwork

Nail Heads

Nail Points Most nails have diamond-shaped points. Sharp-pointed nails have greater holding strength but may tend to split some woods; blunt points should be used for easily split woods.

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HARDWARE NAILS

Power-Driven Pneumatic nailers and Fasteners staplers, driven by a compressor, are capable of fastening materials to wood, steel or concrete. Power-driven fasteners use gunpower charges to drive a variety of studs into concrete or steel.

2. 2.02

HARDWARE SCREWS

Screws are metal fasteners having tapered, helically threaded shanks and slotted heads, designed to be driven into wood or the like by turning, as with a screwdriver. Because of their threaded shafts, screws have greater holding power than nails, and are more easily removable. The more threads they have per inch, the greater their gripping strength. Screws are classified by use, type of head, material, length and diameter.

Material: steel, brass, aluminum, bronze, stainless steel Lengths: to 6 (13 to 150) Diameters: up to 24 gauge

2. 2.02

HARDWARE SCREWS

The length of a wood screw should be about 1/8 (3) less than the combined thickness of the boards being joined, with to 2/3 of the screws length penetrating the base material. Finethreaded screws are generally used for hardwoods while coarse-threaded ones are used for softwoods. Holes for screws should be predrilled and be equal to the base diameter of the threads. Some screws, such as self-tapping and drywall screws, are designed to tap corresponding female threads as they are driven.

2. 2.03

HARDWARE BOLTS

Bolts are threaded metal pins or rods, usually having a head at one end, designed to be inserted through holes in assembled parts and secured by a mating nut. Carriage bolts are used where the head may be inaccessible to the placement of a nut or where an exceptionally long bolt would be needed to penetrate a joint fully. Lengths: to 30 (75 to 760) Diameters: to 1- (6 to 32)

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HARDWARE BOLTS

Washers are perforated disks of metal, rubber or plastic used under the head of a nut or bolt or at a joint to distribute pressure, prevent leakage, relieve friction or insulate incompatible materials. Lock washers are specially constructed to prevent a nut from shaking loose Load-indicating washers have small projections that are progressively flattened as a bolt is tightened, the gap between the head or nut and the washer indicating the tension in the bolt.

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HARDWARE BOLTS Expansion bolts are anchor bolts having a split casing that expands mechanically to engage the sides of a hole drilled in masonry or concrete. Molly is a trademark for a brand of expansion bolt having a split, sleevelike sheath threaded so that turning the bolt draws the ends of the sheath together and spreads the sides to engage a hole drilled in masonry or the inner surface of a hollow wall. Expansions shields are lead or plastic sleeves inserted into a predrilled hole and expanded by driving a bolt or screw into it. Toggle bolts are used to fasten materials to plaster, gypsum board and other thin wall materials. They have two hinged wings that close against a spring when passing through a predrilled hole and open as they emerge to engage the inner surface of a hollow wall.

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HARDWARE BOLTS Rivets are metal pins that are used for permanently joining two or more structural steel members by passing a headed shank through a hole in each piece and hammering down the plain end to form a second head. Their use has been largely superseded by the less labor-intensive techniques of bolting or welding.

Explosive rivets, used when a joint is accessible from one side only, have an explosive-filled shank that is detonated by striking the head with a hammer to expand the shank on the far side of the hole.

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HARDWARE

2.04 ADHESIVES Adhesives are used to secure the surfaces of two materials together. Numerous types of adhesives are available, many of them being tailor-made for use with specific materials and under specified conditions. They may be supplied in the form of a solid, liquid, powder or film; some require a catalyst to activate their adhesive properties. Always follow the manufacturers recommendations in the use of an adhesive. Important considerations in the selection of an adhesive include: Strength: Adhesives are usually strongest in resisting tensile and shear stresses and weakest in resisting cleavage or splitting stresses. Curing or setting time: This ranges from immediate bonding to curing times of up to several days. Setting temperature range: Some adhesives will set at room temperature while others require baking at elevated temperatures. Method of bonding: Some adhesives bond on contact while others require clamping or higher pressures. Characteristics: Adhesives vary in their resistance to water, heat, sunlight and chemicals as well as their aging properties.

2. 2.04

HARDWARE ADHESIVES

Common types of adhesives: Animal or fish glues are primarily for indoor use where temperature and humidity do not vary greatly; they may be weakened by exposure to heat or moisture. White or polyvinyl glue sets quickly, does not stain and is slightly resilient. Epoxy resins are extremely strong, waterproof and may be used to secure both porous and nonporous materials; they may dissolve some plastics. Unlike other adhesives, epoxy glues will set at low temperatures and under wet conditions. Resorcin resins are strong, waterproof and durable for outdoor use, but they are flammable and their dark color may show through paint. Contact cement forms a bond on contact and therefore does not require clamping. It is generally used to secure large sheet materials such as plastic laminate.

END OF DIVISION 08 DOORS AND WINDOWS