Stresses in Rock Masses

Geomechanics (EBS 4173) Hareyani Zabidi

To learn

Types of stresses in rock Stress determination methods Results from stress determination

Why stress?

Pre-existing stress in the ground, and need to understand it; during engineering project (tunneling), pre-existing stresses is disturbed Engineering applied stress state can be changed dramatically, the rock previously
contained stresses , has been removed and taken to somewhere else

Stress is a tensor quantity, not familiar subject

to encountered

In-situ Stress

The importance for rock engineering

Why to determine? Basic knowledge of the stress state for engineering (direction, magnitude) Effect of stress against engineering structures Direction of breaking Groundwater flow

In-situ Stress

Determination of in-situ stress Expectation of in-situ stress

STRESSES IN ROCK MASSES

Rock at depth is subjected to stresses resulting from the weight of the overlying strata and from locked in stresses of tectonic origin. When an opening is excavated in this rock, the stress field is locally disrupted and a new set of stresses are induced in the rock surrounding the opening.

Figure of stresses induced in the rock surrounding a horizontal circular tunnel. (ref : in situ and induced stresses)
Excavation of tunnel no new loads are applied in unsupported excavations Pre-existing stresses are distributed by engineering activity Result- stresses increase in some areas, and contrast in other areas

Knowledge of the magnitude and direction of these in situ and induced stresses is an essential component of underground excavation design.
In many cases, the strength of the rock is exceeded and the resulting instability can have serious consequences on the behaviour of the excavations.

TYPES OF STRESSES IN ROCK

Stresses in rock can be grouped according to origin into:
i. ii.

Natural stresses Induced stresses

Natural stresses are those stresses

found in rock before excavation : 123gravitational stresses tectonic stresses residual stresses

4-

thermal stresses

Induced stresses are those that

occured as the result of stress changes due to manmade excavations.

1.

Gravitional Stresses
Gravity stresses (v)/vertical stress resulted from the weight of the overburden/overlying strata
v = gz where v = vertical stress = density = mass/volume z = depth

g = acceleration

Vertical stress component increases in magnitude as the depth below the ground surface increases, weight of the overburden At shallow depths, the actual value is much less
1

MPa is induced by 40m of overlying rock 1 psi is induced by 1 ft of overlying rock

The density of common rocks such as quartz-sandstone, limestone, quartz-rich magnetic rocks = 2670 kg/m3
The vertical component/stress at a depth of 1000 m, as follows;
v = gz

= 2670 x 9.8 x 1000 = 26 MPa

The gradient of stress over 1000 m due to gravity = 0.026 MPa/m.

For rocks such as basic magmatic rocks, metamorphic rocks having a density of 3000 kg/m3, the gradient will increase to = 0.029 MPa/m.

Horizontal stresses

2. Horizontal stresses
The horizontal stresses acting on an element of rock at a depth of, z below the surface are much more difficult to estimate then the vertical stresses. If the material in the earth crust is considered strictly elastic and no lateral strain was permitted during formation of the overburden, the horizontal stresses =

H =

v v 1-v v = Poissons ratio

For example H = 0.25 H = 1 v 1- 0.25 3 For most rock, poissons ratio varies between 0.15 0.35.
The common value is 0.25 which defines the H as 1/3 of the v

The rock material cannot sustain shear stresses on a long term basis. The horizontal stress will reach the magnitude of the vertical stress after a period of time. This is known as lithostatic.

H = v
v = 0.5, H = 0.5 ; H = v 1- 0.5

Lithostatic stress can be found

In areas where sedimentation is ongoing. The sediments with high water content

At great depth in the earth crust

The force exerted on a rock buried deep within the Earth by overlying rocks. Because lithostatic pressure is exerted equally from all sides of a rock, it compresses the rock into a smaller, denser form without altering the rock's shape.

Thus the horizontal stress derived from gravity can be expressed by the factor k (lithology factor). H = k.v
with 0 < k < 1

k varies from 0 with no lateral restraint to k = 1 for a lithostatic stress field

k = 1 for fluids k < 1 = rigid material such as rock; shale , k = 0.37

High horizontal stress

Caused by many factors: erosion, tectonics, rock anisotropy, local effect of discontinuities The earth is not static. It always experiences movement in the earths crust continuously.

E.g; (Mid-Atlantic Range) continents of both sides of the atlantic are moving apart away from the Atlantic rift system

Tectonic stresses result from tectonic activities

High horizontal stress is due to tectonic forces

Earthquake along the San Andreas (1906 1989), recorded high shear stress and result from tectonic activity Subduction zone off the coast of Chile, near the Andes, expected to have high horizontal normal stresses. Proven by rock slopes instability & rockburst surface & underground mines

Subduction zone off the west coast of South America high horizontal insitu stresses

1=v 3=h

2=H

Normal fault Vertical stress (v) is the max principal stress (1) v > H > h

3=v 1=H 2=h v=2 1=H 3=h

Thrust fault Horizontal stress (H) is the max principal stress (1) H > h > v
Strike-slip fault Horizontal stress (H) is the max principal stress (1) H > v > h

3.

Residual Stresses

Residual stresses are stresses that remain locked in after rock is removed from the ground

Erosion
An increase in the K-value or horizontal stress caused by erosion Removal of the overburden and the consequential effect on both the vertical and horizontal stresses result high k-value Locked horizontal stresses/lower vertical stresses (near to the surface) = higher kvalue

4.

Thermal Stresses
Stresses induced by natural or manmade phenomena that cause thermal expansion or contraction of the rock

5.

Induced Stresses
Induced stresses are the result of excavation activity and therefore are of great concern in underground design
1

STRESS
Stress is defined as force over area and according to Newton, a force (F) is defined as the product of mass (m) times accelaration (a).

F = m.a

In the International System of Units (SI units), force is defined in Newton (N).
F = 1 N = kg . m s2

On earth, the acceleration due to gravity of a = g = 9.8 m/s2, and a kg of mass create a force (weight) of: F(earth) = 1 kg x 9.8 m/s2 = 9.8 N

If a force of 1 N is acting over an area of 1 m2, this stress is called 1 pascal (Pa). From engineering point of view this is relatively small stress. Generally, it is preferable to deal with 106 Pa = 1 Mpa.

Stress components
F
Fs Fn

Existance of normal forces, Fn and shear

forces, Fs on a plane Shear force + normal force = stress tensor The normal and shear stress the normal and shear forces per unit area

Force vs. stress

Force component, Fn in direction from F Fn = F cos & Fs = F sin ; only force resolved

Force vs. stress

Normal stress component, n in same direction n = cos2 ; force and area resolved Shear force + normal force = stress tensor

Stress components on a small cube

Consider normal & shear components in rectangular x-y-z

3 visible faces of a cube Equilibrium state

Normal stress directly evident; shear stress - indirect Shear force resolved into 2 perpendicular components;

aligned with 2 axes parallel to the edges

Resolved = 3 normal components ; 6 shear components

Stress components on a small cube

Development of two shear stresses Shear force resolved into 2 perpendicular components;

aligned with 2 axes parallel to the edges

Resolved = 3 normal components ; 6 shear components

Stress matrix
xx

yz

xy xz xy x = plane on which the comp acts yy yz y = direction in which the stress comp acts
zz

zx yz

Stress components:
Row = components on any plane; axis perpendicular to it, e.g., zy acts

on a plane perpendicular to the z-axis

Column = components acting in any given direction

Stress equilibrium

Nine separate stress components at a point Body is in equilibrium; forces and moments at all equilibrium Should inspect the equilibrium of forces at apoint in terms of these stress

components 4 stress components acting on the edges of a small square

Principal stresses

Principal stresses
Stress components = 3 normal stresses + 3 shear

stresses
Max and min values of normal stresses = shear

components equal to zero

Principal stresses = normal components of

stress act at planes, that the shear stress components are zero
1, 2, 3 = principal stresses

Unsupported excavation surfaces = pricipal stress planes

Unsupported excavated surface

Force component, Fn in direction from F = cos

Shear force + normal force = stress tensor

In-situ stress determination

ISRM method of stress determination
1. Flatjack test 2. Hydraulic fracturing 3. United States Bureau of Mines (USBM) overcoring torpedo 4. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) overcoring gauge

The four ISRM suggested methods for rock stress determination and their ability to determine the components of the tensor with one application of the particular method 1. Flatjack 2. Hydraulic fracturing
One normal stress yz component determined, say parallel to x-axis

xx

xy xz
yy

xx

xy xz

zz

Principal stresses assumed parallel yy yz to axes, i.e. plane of the fracture, 1& 3, one zz say estimated, 2

3. USBM overcoring torpedo

4. CSIRO overcoring gauge

xx

xy xz

3 components in 2-D determined yy yz from 3 measurements of zz borehole diameter change

xx xy xz

All 6 components determined from yy yz 6 (or more) measurements of zz strain at one time

STRESS DETERMINATION METHODS

1. Stress Compensation Methods / Flatjack test
2 pins are installed at a suitable point in the wall of an underground excavation and the distance, d, between those pins is measured Then, a slot is made with overlapping holes or a rock saw and as the slot closes,

If normal stress is compressive, these pins converge and their final position is measured again. A flatjack or hydraulic cushion of mild steel, comprised of 2 metal sheets placed together. The tool is installed in the slot and tightly packed with cement. It carries two connections for hydraulic lines so that a Bourdon gauge can be fitted

On pressurizing the flatjack, the pins will move apart

Pin separation distance reaches the value it had before the slot was cut pre-existing normal stress
The flatjact is set under enough pressure to move the previously installed pins back to their original position.

Figure of flatjack method

flatjack test configuration

The flatjack test in progress

2. Hydraulic Fracturing
Provide 2 items of information the breakdown pressure (major principal stress: 1)and the shut-in pressure (minor principal stress: 3) Advantage - allows the determination of ground stress levels in deep drill holes. Originated from the oil industry. Disadvantege assumptions have to be made in order to complete stress tensor:

1.

Principal stress parallel and perpendicular to the boreholes axis Vertical principal stress can be estimated from the depth of overburden

2.

This method allows the determination of ground stress levels in deep drill holes. Originated from the oil industry. The equipment comprises bore hole tools to set packers, a flow pump, injection fluids and borehole inspection units to determine orientation of cracks in the pressurized section.

Hydraulic fracturing

A borehole subjected to fluid pressure will develop an extension fracture if the tensile stresses developed by the fluid pressure (p) exceed the external stresses on the borehole wall and the tensile strength (To) of the material.
If To is zero, as in the case of an old fracture intersecting the drill hole wall which is held closed by the normal stress acting on it, the fracture will open.

3. Overcoring
When a piece of rock is drilled out of the surrounding material (overcored), it expands due to its elasticity.
If this elastic strain recovery is measured, and the elastic properties of the overcored material are determined, then the stresses which were acting on the overcored material can be calculated according to Hookes Law

Overcoring in-situ stresses test