Topics to be discussed Describe what is matter and explain its particulate nature; Clarify and differentiate the three

ee states of matter solid, liquid and gas;

Describe the effect of pressure and temperature on states of matter;

Illustrate the inter-conversion of these states with the help of suitable examples; Classify the given matter as an element, a compound or a mixture; Distinguish between homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures; Define the terms solution, solvent and solute;

What is chemistry? Study of matter (structure composition and properties), energy and interaction What is Matter? Matter is any thing which has mass and occupies space. All solids, liquids and gases around us are made of matter. All matter is particulate in nature. Particle nature of matter 430 BC: Leucipus and Democritus propose that matter consisted of indivisible solid particle called Atom Plato and Aristotle believed that everything is a mixture of four elements earth, air, water and fire. Robert Boyle defined element as a substance that cannot be broken into simpler substances. 1800s: Dalton argues that atom is indivisible. Atom of one element combines with other in a fixed ration.

MATTER

Physical state of matter Solid Liquid Gas Plasma

By the chemical composition of matter as an element, compound or mixture

Difference between Solid, Liquid and gases

Solid Definite volume Definite shape Strong intermolecular force of attraction Cannot be commpressed

Liquid Definite volume No definite shape Intermolecular force of attraction is weaker than in solid They can be compressed

Gases variable shape, variable volume, Intermolecular force of attraction Is minimum We can compress a gas only up to a certain limit. Beyond this limit repulsion between gas molecules becomes very high. The kinetic energy of its particles is maximum.

The kinetic energy of its particles is minimum.

The kinetic energy of its particles is less than solids.

The 4th State of Matter -- Plasma A. Plasma: gaseous mixture of electrons and positive ions. B. It behaves as a gas because it has no definite shape or volume. However, gases are not made up of electrons and positive ions. C. In order for plasma to exist, temperature must be between 50,000 K - 100, 000, 000 K !!! D. True Plasma is found in: 1. stars 2. the sun E. Partial Plasma (plasma that can exist on earth) is found in: 1. fluorescent lights 2. neon signs 3. lightning bolts 4. flames

 The kinetic theory of matter can be used to explain how solids, liquids and gases are interchangeable as a result of increase or decrease in heat energy. When an object is heated the motion of the particles increases as the particles become more energetic. If it is cooled the motion of the particles decreases as they lose energy.

Interconversion of three states of matter: Any state of matter can be converted into other state with the help of temperature or pressure. Different terminology for the Interconversion of states of matter is given below:

(i) Solid to Liquid: Fusion (ii) Liquid to Gas: Vaporisation (iii) Gas to liquid: Condensation (iv) Liquid to Solid: Solidification (v) Solid to Gas: Sublimation (vi) Gas to Solid: Sublimation

Evidence for particles Evidence obtained from practical work including processes, such as diffusion and osmosis. Experiments 1. Diffusion of coloured gas in air 2. Diffusion of coloured liquid in water 3. Diffusion of ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases in cylindrical tube Diffusion: In both liquid and gaseous state particle has random translational motion, that is movement from place to place. The particle spreads out to occupy total available space.

Melting In a solid the strong attractions between the particles hold them tightly packed together. Even though they are vibrating this is not enough to disrupt the structure. When a solid is heated the particles gain energy and start to vibrate faster and faster. Initially the structure is gradually weakened which has the effect of expanding the solid. Further heating provides more energy until the particles start to break free of the structure. Although the particles are still loosely connected they are able to move around. At this point the solid is melting to form a liquid. The particles in the liquid are the same as in the solid but they have more energy. To melt a solid energy is required to overcome the attractions between the particles and allow them to pull them apart. The energy is provided when the solid is heated up. The temperature at which something melts is called its "melting point" or melting temperature. At room temperature a material is a solid, liquid or gas depending on its melting temperature. Anything with a melting temperature higher than about 20oC is likely to be a solid under normal conditions. Materials have widely differing melting temperatures e.g. mercury -39oC, ice 0oC, salt 1081oC, aluminium 660oC and steel 1535oC. Everyday materials such as ice, butter and wax have different melting temperatures and can be used as examples with children. Ice is probably the melting substance most children are familiar with. It can be problematic when trying to develop an understanding of melting as it does often appear to them to melt without any source of heat. Ice melts at room temperature because the surrounding air is warmer than the ice and at a temperature above the melting temperature. The heat energy required to melt the ice comes from the surrounding air which will consequently become a little cooler. Not all solids melt when they are heated. Some may undergo chemical changes as a result of heating. For example paper burns rather than melts. Return to top of page Evaporating Within a liquid some particles have more energy than other. These "more energetic particles" may have sufficient energy to escape from the surface of the liquid as gas or vapour. This process is called evaporation and the result of evaporation is commonly observed when puddles or clothes dry. Evaporation takes place at room temperature which is often well below the boiling point of the liquid. Evaporation happens from the surface of the liquid. As the temperature increases the rate of evaporation increases. Evaporation is also assisted by windy conditions which help to remove the vapour particles from the liquid so that more escape. Evaporation is a complex idea for children for a number of reasons. The process involves the apparent disappearance of a liquid which makes the process difficult for them to understand. It is not easy to see the water particles in the air. Also, evaporation occurs in a number of quite differing situations - such as from a puddle or bowl of water where the amount of liquid obviously changes, to situations where the liquid is less obvious - such as clothes drying or even those where there is no obvious liquid at all to start with - such as bread drying out. A further complication is that evaporation may be of a solvent from a solution e.g. water evaporating from salt water to leave salt. These situations are quite different yet all involve evaporation. Evaporation may also involve liquids other than water e.g. perfume, petrol, air fresheners. The particle model can be used to explain how it is possible to detect smells some distance away from the source. Return to top of page Boiling If a liquid is heated the particles are given more energy and move faster and faster expanding the liquid. The most energetic particles at the surface escape from the surface of the liquid as a vapour as it gets warmer. Liquids evaporate faster as they heat up and more particles have enough energy to break away. The particles need energy to overcome the attractions between them. As the liquid gets warmer more particles have sufficient energy to escape from the liquid. Eventually even particles in the middle of the liquid form bubbles of gas in the liquid. At this point the liquid is boiling and turning to gas. The particles in the gas are the same as they were in the liquid they just have more energy. At normal atmospheric pressure all materials have a specific temperature at which boiling occurs. This is called the "boiling point" or boiling temperature. As with the melting point the boiling point of materials vary widely e.g. nitrogen -210oC, alcohol 78oC, aluminium 459oC. Any material with a boiling temperature below 20oC is likely to be a gas at room temperature. When liquids boil the particles must have sufficient energy to break away from the liquid and to diffuse through the surrounding air particles. As these particles cool down and lose energy they will condense and turn back to liquid. When steam is formed by water boiling at 100oC the particles quickly condense as the surrounding air temperature is likely to be much less that 100oC so the particles cool rapidly. In fact the "steam" coming out of a boiling kettle can only be seen because some of the gas particles have condensed to form small droplets of water. When a gas turns to a liquid (condenses) or a liquid turns to a solid (solidifies) the particles lose energy to the surroundings.

Diffusion in Gases Gaseous diffusion can be demonstrated using two gas cylinders, a glass plate and a coloured gas. The coloured gas is used to fill the first gas cylinder, covered with the glass plate. The second cylinder is inverted on top of the first (this second cylinder is filled with air). When the glass plate separating the cylinders is removed the movement of the coloured gas can be seen. If bromine is used as the coloured gas the demonstration should be done in a fume hood as bromine is highly corrosive and poisonous. The bromine must also be handled carefully. The brown gas can also be generated in situ by reacting moderately concentrated nitric acid with copper (a copper based coin can be used). Diffusion in Liquids A few coloured crystals of a soluble salt like potassium manganate (VII) are added to a beaker with the aid of a glass tube. Keeping the tube in place, water is then added to the beaker and the tube removed. This is left to stand for a while students explain their observations. Discussion should be encouraged with regard to (a) how the rate of diffusion in gases compares with that in liquids and (b) how and why the rate of diffusion of a gas depends on its density. With regards to (b) if the terms "light" and "heavy" is used, it should be emphasized that the terms light and heavy for the comparison being made applies to individual particles. The terms dense and less dense is for the comparison of the gases. Comparison of molecular formula and atomic masses allows for the determination of relative masses. For e.g., a molecule of carbon dioxide has the formula CO2 and the hydrogen molecule is H2. The relative mass of carbon dioxide will be (1x12)+2(16) = 44. The relative mass of hydrogen is 2(1) = 2. The carbon dioxide particles is twenty-two (22) times as heavy as a hydrogen molecule and the hydrogen particles will be able to move much faster than the carbon dioxide particles. Other Diffusion Experiments A simple experiment to show that gases of low density diffuse more rapidly than gases of high density can be demonstrated with ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas. (Include the chemical equation for the reaction, including state symbols. Students should calculate the relative molecular masses of the gases). After observing diffusion in gases and liquids, students should be helped to deduce that there is little or no diffusion in solids. For example, they can be asked: "When you place a glass on a wooden table, do you observe any merging of glass and wood?" Osmosis Simple apparatus such as a thistle funnel, with its mouth covered by a piece of cellophane, can be used to demonstrate osmosis. The apparatus can be set up and left for approximately half an hour. Osmosis may also be demonstrated by soaking a dried prune in water. The skin of the prune acts as a semi-permeable membrane, the plasma membrane in cells that form the tissue of the prune acts as a semi-permeable membrane, and the prune swells. This prune can then be placed in a concentrated solution (e.g. a saturated sucrose solution) and will shrink since in this case the solution inside the prune will lose more water to the sugar solution that it will gain from the sugar solution. Other examples of semi-permeable membranes are pigs' bladders and visking tubing. Brownian Motion This can be demonstrated if a microscope is available. The experiment originally performed by Robert Brown in 1827 can be repeated (using pollen grains suspended in water) or by using a suspension of a small amount of toothpaste in water and viewing it under the high power magnification of a microscope. The zigzag, jerky movements of light, visible particles can be explained in the following manner: water/air particles that are in constant motion bombard the visible particles constantly, but at any particular instant, such particles will tend to experience greater impulses from particles on one side, and will therefore be propelled in a particular direction.

Diffusion