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Dr. Rinku Mathur Dr .Shantanu Jain Dr. Tripti Sharma Ra
CONTENT:
Introduction
Evolution
of Endocrine system Chemical characteristics of Hormones Regulation of Hormone Release Hypothalamus & its Hormone Various glands and their importance Disorders of Endocrine system common in Children References
INTRODUCTION:
Constant internal environment (i.e., homeostasis) should be maintained. Two systems help ensure communication:
NERVOUS SYSTEM
HORMONAL Neuroendocrine
Rapid transmission
Long-lasting regulatory action Both systems interact: Stimuli from the nervous system can influence the release of certain hormones and vice versa.
The nervous system coordinates rapid and precise responses to stimuli using action potentials. The endocrine system maintains homeostasis and long-term control using chemical signals. The most primitive endocrine systems seem to be those of the neurosecretory type, in which the nervous system either secretes neurohormones directly into the circulation or stores them in neurohemal organs (neurons whose endings directly contact blood vessels, allowing neurohormones to be secreted into the circulation), from which they are released in large amounts as needed. True endocrine glands probably evolved later in the evolutionary history of the animal kingdom as separate, hormone-secreting structures.
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION: Similarities among the endocrine systems of crustaceans, arthropods, and vertebrates.
The vertebrate endocrine system consists of glands (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal), and diffuse cell groups scattered in epithelial tissues.
Endocrine glands arise during development for all three embryologic tissue layers (endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm). The type of endocrine product is determined by which tissue layer a gland originated in. Glands of ectodermal and endodermal origin: peptide and amine hormones; Mesodermal-origin glands: hormones based on lipids.
Hormones are molecules that are produced by endocrine glands: i. The hypothalamus, ii. Pituitary gland, iii. Adrenal glands, iv. Gonads, (i.e., testes and ovaries), v. Thyroid gland, vi. Parathyroid glands, and vii. Pancreas
The term endocrine implies that in response to specific stimuli, the products of those glands are released into the bloodstream. The hormones then are carried via the blood to their target cells.
The target cells for each hormone are characterized by the presence of docking molecules (i.e., receptors) for the hormone that are located either on the cell surface or inside the cell. The interaction between the hormone and its receptor triggers a cascade of biochemical reactions in the target cell that eventually modify the cells function or activity.
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF HORMONES
I. II. III.
Their mechanisms of action (e.g., whether they can enter their target cells and how they modulate the activity of those cells) also differ.
MECHANISM OF ACTION:
STEROIDS: produced by gonads; structure similar to cholesterol.
Enter their target cells and interact with the cytoplasm or in the cell nucleus
Hormone-receptor complexes bind to certain regions of the cells genetic material (i.e., the DNA) Regulating the activity of specific hormoneresponsive genes
MECHANISM OF ACTION:
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Amino acid derivatives: are modified versions of building blocks of proteins. thyroid gland & adrenal glands (i.e., the adrenal medulla) Enter the cell, where they interact with receptor proteins that are already associated with specific DNA regions. The interaction modifies the activity of the affected genes.
Polypeptide and protein hormones: found primarily in the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pancreas Because of their chemical structure, the polypeptide and protein hormones cannot enter cells. Instead, they interact with receptors on the cell surface.
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REGULATION
OF HORMONE RELEASE
Constant feedback from the target glands to the hypothalamus and pituitary gland ensures that the activity of the hormone system involved remains within appropriate boundaries.
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pleasure)
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Neurosecretory cells
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hypothalamic nuclei
superior hypophyseal artery trabecular artery long portal veins
hypothalamic nuclei
superior hypophyseal artery trabecular artery long portal veins
hypothalamic nuclei
superior hypophyseal artery trabecular artery long portal veins adenosecondary capillary hypophyseal plexus capillary plexus
hypothalamic nuclei
superior hypophyseal artery trabecular artery long portal veins adenohypophyseal capillary plexus hypophyseal vein
HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES
RELEASING
INHIBITING
Somatostanin
Dopamine
Growth-Hormone (GHRH) GH
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INTERMEDIATE LOBE
There is also an intermediate lobe in many animals, but is rudimentary in humans. For instance, in fish, it is believed to control physiological color change. In adult humans, it is just a thin layer of cells between the anterior and posterior pituitary. The intermediate lobe produces melanocytestimulating hormone (MSH), although this function is often (imprecisely) attributed to the anterior pituitary.
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GROWTH HORMONE
Most abundant of the pituitary hormones Pivotal role in controlling the bodys growth and development. Stimulates the linear growth of the bones; Promotes the growth of internal organs, fat (i.e., adipose) tissue, connective tissue, endocrine glands, and muscle; and Controls the development of the reproductive organs. GH affects carbohydrate, protein, and fat (i.e., lipid) metabolism. GH levels in the blood are highest during early childhood and puberty and decline thereafter.
1. 2.
3. 4.
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Two hypothalamic hormones control GH release: (1) GHRH: stimulates GH release, (2) Somatostatin: inhibits GH release.
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PROLACTIN.
Central role in the development of the female breast and in the initiation and maintenance of lactation after childbirth. Factors control Prolactin release:
1.
2.
3. 4.
Response to the rise in estrogen levels in the blood that occurs during pregnancy. In nursing women, Prolactin is released in response to suckling by the infant. Dopamine, which has an inhibitory effect. Alcohol consumption by nursing women can influence lactation both through its effects on the release of prolactin and oxytocin.
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POSTERIOR PITUITARY:
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VASOPRESSIN
Vasopressin (arginine vasopressin, AVP; antidiuretic hormone, ADH) is a peptide hormone formed in the hypothalamus, then transported via axons to, and released from, the posterior pituitary.
Two
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Hypovolemia: decreased central venous pressure, the decreased firing of atrial stretch receptors leads to an increase in AVP release. Hypotension, which decreases arterial baroreceptor firing and leads to enhanced sympathetic activity, increases AVP release. Angiotensin II receptors located in a region of the hypothalamus regulate AVP release an increase in angiotensin II simulates AVP release. Increased sympathetic activation stimulates AVP release
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OXYTOCIN HORMONE
I.
In nursing women, the hormone activates milk ejection in response to suckling by the infant (i.e., the so-called let-down reflex).
I.
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Action
1.
of Cortisol:
2. 3.
4. 5.
Cortisol increases glucose levels in the blood by stimulating gluconeogenesis in the liver and promotes the formation of glycogen in the liver. Reduces glucose uptake into muscle and adipose tissue, Promotes protein and lipid breakdown into products (i.e., amino acids and glycerol, respectively) that can be used for gluconeogenesis. Protect the body against the deleterious effects of various stress factors. Suppress tissue inflammation in response to injuries and to reduce the immune response to foreign molecules.
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ACTION OF ALDOSTERONE:
Regulate the bodys water and electrolyte balance. Conserve sodium and to excrete potassium from the body. Reducing water excretion and increasing blood volume. Decreases the ratio of sodium to potassium concentrations in sweat and saliva, thereby preventing sodium loss via those routes. Controlled primarily by another hormone system, the reninangiotensin system, which also controls kidney function.
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Parafollicular C cells) in the thyroid gland produce calcitonin, a hormone that helps maintain normal calcium levels in the blood. Specifically, calcitonin lowers calcium levels in the blood by reducing the release of calcium from the bones; inhibiting the constant erosion of bones (i.e., bone resorption), which also releases calcium; and inhibiting the reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys.
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CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
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EXOCRINE
ENDOCRINE
INSULIN
GLUCAGON
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Islets of
Effect of Insulin:
1. 2.
Inhibits gluco-neogenesis Insulin promotes the formation of storage forms of energy (e.g., glycogen, proteins, and lipids) and suppresses the breakdown of those stored 48 nutrients.
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DIABETES
''Type 1 diabetes is growing by 5% per year among pre-school children in India. It is estimated that 70,000 children, who are under 15 years, develop juvenile type 1 diabetes each year (almost 200 children a day!).
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CAUSES:
Type
Increased
overwhelmingly to lifestyle changes that have contributed to increased weight problems and lack of activity in children.
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TREATMENT:
INSULIN: The advent of insulin pumps for administration has allowed many children added flexibility in their daily lives. Monitoring blood sugar levels Crucial factor Diet: reduced consumption of fats and sugars, intake fibers, vegetables and fruits. Exercise: helps in lowering blood glucose levels of the body
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COMPLICATIONS
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GIGANTISM
Gigantism refers to abnormally high linear growth due to excessive action of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) while the epiphyseal growth plates are open during childhood. Acromegaly is the same disorder of IGF-I excess when it occurs after the growth plate cartilage fuses in adulthood.
Robert Wadlow, called the Alton giant, who stood 8 feet 11 inches tall at the time of his death in his mid-20s
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CAUSES
Causes
hormone (GHRH) secretion or hypothalamic dysregulation; and production of IGF-binding protein, which prolongs the half-life of circulating IGF-I.
TREATMENT
Medical
i. ii. iii.
Care
Surgery clearly fails to cure a notable number of patients with IGF-I excess Long-acting somatostatin analogs and dopamine agonists improve adherence and efficacy. Octreotide are the most effective medical therapies for GH excess. Bromocriptine are best used as adjuvant treatments.
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PITUITARY DWARFISM
The achondroplastic dwarf has an orthopedic reason for having short limbs and a short spinal colum. The pituitary dwarf lacks growth hormone (an endocrine reason). SYMPTOMS:
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RISK FACTORS:
Disease of the hypothalamus of the brain Disease of the front of the pituitary gland in the brain Newborns who had some type of serious medical event (such as a lack of oxygen) happen in the perinatal period, are at risk for the type of growth hormone deficiency caused by damage to the hypothalamus.
TREATMENT:
Treatment with human growth hormone theoretically corrects the deficiency, but is most successful when the child is young. It must be given by injection.
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PRECOCIOUS PUBERTY
Precocious puberty describes puberty occurring at an unusually early age. CAUSES: Central: damage to the inhibitory system of the brain hypothalamic hamartoma produces pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Langerhans cell histiocytosis
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PERIPHERAL CAUSES
Secondary sexual development induced by sex steroids from other abnormal sources is referred to as peripheral precocious puberty. Endogenous sources
gonadal tumors (such as arrhenoblastoma) adrenal tumors germ cell tumor congenital adrenal hyperplasia McCuneAlbright syndrome
Exogenous hormones
Environmental As treatment for another condition
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TREATMENT
GnRH agonists stimulate the pituitary to release Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). One possible treatment is with anastrozole. Histrelin acetate.
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TREATMENT
Primary
adrenal lesions
Surgical excision is the first-line therapy for a cortical-secreting ACT. Mitotane therapy appears to be the treatment of choice
Cushings
disease
Medical therapies such as Metyrapone and Ketoconazole to lower serum cortisol levels can be used as a short-term measure, but cannot be recommended as long-term therapy.
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THYROID DISORDERS
Thyroid disease occurs less frequently in children than in adults, the signs and symptoms can be similar.
Congenital hypothyroidism
Affects infants at birth, and occurs in about 1 in 4000 live-born babies. Loss of thyroid function, due to the thyroid gland failing to develop normally. Enzyme defect leading to deficient hormone production, iodine deficiency and a brain pituitary gland abnormality.
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Within the first week of life, a heelprick blood sample is taken to assess an infant's thyroid hormone level. Infant is immediately given thyroid hormone replacement therapy (T4 thyroxine). Normal growth and development should then continue, with no adverse effects on the child's mental capacity.
Subtle symptoms:
1.
2.
3. 4. 5.
6.
7.
Poor feeding Poor growth and development Constipation Dry skin & hair Low body temperature Slow tendon reflex Slow pulse Enlarged tongue Prolonged jaundice, Umbilical hernia Increased sleepiness Puffiness & swelling Decreased crying.
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Severe:
HYPERTHYROIDISM IN NEWBORNS
If the mother has Graves' disease, the thyroidstimulating antibodies in her blood can cross the placenta and stimulate the unborn child's thyroid gland, thus producing too much thyroid hormone. Some newborns may hardly be affected if the levels of antibodies are low. No treatment may be necessary as the mother's antibodies will soon clear from the baby's 70 bloodstream, usually within 2 to 3 months.
TREATMENT
Anti-thyroid drugs is safe and effective, and will only be needed for a short period of time, until the stimulating antibodies pass from the baby's bloodstream. If the mother is on a high dose of anti-thyroid medication, the diagnosis can be delayed by about a week until the infant clears the anti-thyroid medication.
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HASHIMOTO'S THYROIDITIS
The most common cause of hypothyroidism in children and adolescents is Hashimoto's thyroiditis, an autoimmune disease. As the thyroid gland becomes increasingly underactive, physical and mental changes will become more obvious. Symptoms of hypothyroidism develop very slowly
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The first sign is that the child's growth rate decreases unexpectedly and skeletal development is delayed.
GOITRE
Decreased Energy Lethargy
WEIGHT GAIN
Poor Concentration
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TREATMENT
Thyroid hormone replacement is taken daily for life. The dosage of thyroid hormone needs to be ageappropriate, as the body's demands for thyroid hormone vary with age.
SIDE-EFFECTS: In children who have had long-standing hypothyroidism, ultimate height potential may be partly lost. As the child regains normal thyroid function, behavioural problems may arise as their physical and mental processes speed up
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GRAVES' DISEASE
The most common cause of hyperthyroidism in children and adolescents is an autoimmune condition called Graves' disease.
In Graves' disease the body produces antibodies that stimulate the thyroid gland uncontrollably, to make too much thyroid hormone.
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TREATMENT
Propylthiouracil (PTU) or Carbimazole. Period of 'block and replace therapy' (anti-thyroid drugs as well as thyroxine) is useful. Throughout a child's treatment, thyroid hormone levels will need to be monitored regularly, along with their clinical symptoms.
SIDE EFFECTS
Anti-thyroid drugs can, however, occasionally stop the production of white blood cells or platelets. Sore throats, mouth ulcers, excessive bruising or skin rashes can indicate this. The only safe action is to stop the medication until after the result of the blood test.
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REFERENCES:
Susanne Hiller-Sturmhfel and Andrzej Bartke. The Endocrine Syste An Overview. Alcohol Health & Research World; Vol. 22(3):1998; 153-64 Ashley B. Grossman, Martin O. Savage.Pediatric Cushings Syndrome: Clinical Features, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab 2007;51/8:1261-1271)
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Presented by: Dr. Ruby Kharkwal 1st year postgraduate student Department of Pedodontics 79