RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Refers to the over-all operational

pattern of framework that stipulates what information to be collected, from which sources, and by what procedures measurement and analysis of data

is the blueprint for collection,

Parts of the Research Methodology:

1. Research Design - choose the right research design according to the type of research that will done

Classification of Research Designs:

By degree of problem crystallization

(exploratory vs. formalized)

By topical (statistical vs. case)

By research environment

(field vs. laboratory)

By time dimension

(one-time vs. longitudinal)

Classification of Research Designs:

By communication mode

(observational vs. survey)

By researcher control of variable

(experimental vs. ex post facto)

By nature of relationship among

variables (descriptive vs. causal)

Parts of the Research Methodology:

2. The Subjects the proponent has to explain who and where the subjects will be taken. - the respondents

Parts of the Research Methodology: 3. Data Gathering Procedure

To sample or not to sample (Census) Sampling Method Sample Size

Sampling is . . . .
a process of selecting a part (sample) from a given population The primary objective of sampling is to make generalizations about unknown characteristic(s), usually called parameters, of a population Examples of parameters are the true population mean, population proportion etc.

Reasons/Advantages of Sampling: Economy/costs Timeliness Provides greater scope or coverage Generates more accurate results Is necessary when sampling is destructive Ethical considerations

An Important Fact about Sampling

Different results and hence different conclusions can be arrived when inference about a parameter is made on the basis of a sample. This is due to the fact that a sample is just one of many possible samples that can be selected.

Probability vs Non-probability Sampling

Probability Sampling
Elements are selected for the sample using a probability mechanism (randomization), e.g. Use of random number tables Selection of probabilities are known Selection of probabilities need not be equal

Note every one has the chance to be in the sample, but the chance is not necessarily equal. For example, some elements may be selected with a probability of 1/10 and other with a probability of 1/20.

Sampling Frame
Mechanism for randomization and observational access to the population I. Types List frame Area frame Telephone numbers for telephone surveys

Sampling Frame II. Problems usually associated with sampling frame Missing elements or non coverage Duplicate listings Clusters Blanks

1. Types of Probability Sampling Simple random Systematic Stratified Cluster Multi-stage Must come from a sampling frame

Non-probability Sampling
Selection of units are solely determined by rules set by the sampler Haphazard, convenience, or accidental sampling Purposive sampling or expert choice Quota sampling

ISSUE: Which is better? There is no straightforward answer to resolve the issue outright Non-probability sampling may be cheaper to implement It is only with probability sampling that one is able to derive objective measures of errors and hence make inferences

Sample Size Determination

Important:
The size of the sample size has nothing to do with its representativeness. Representativeness is dependent on the sample plan. Sample size affects the sampling accuracy.

Methods of Determining of Sample Size

1) Arbitrary method may take on the guise of a rule of thumb statement regarding the sample size Ex. 5% of the population 2) Cost-based method sample size is determined by the budget available

Methods of Determining of Sample Size

3) Statistical analysis approach- is used to analyze sub-groups within a sample 4) Confidence interval approach applies the concept of variability, confidence interval, sampling distribution, and standard error of a mean or a percentage to create a valid sample.

Variability- defined as the amount of dissimilarity (or similarity) in respondents answer to a particular question. The standard deviation indicates the amount of variability in a sample Confidence interval is a range whose endpoints define a certain percentage of the responses to a question Ex. 95 confidence interval 1.96 x the standard deviation

Sampling distribution refers to what would be found if the researcher takes many independent samples and plotting the distribution of their means Standard error is an indication of how far away from the true population value a typical sample result is expected to fall

Determination of Sample Size if the sample survey is used and because the total number of cases or population (N) is large, sample size must be determined by using a formula:
Ss= NV+ [(Se)2 x (1-p)] NSe +[(v)2 x p(1-p)]
Where: Ss= sample size N= total # of population V= value (2.58) of 1% level of probability with 0.99 reliability (level of confidence) Se= sampling error (0.01)/margin of error p= largest possible population/proportion

Source: Calmorin, L. and Calmorin, M. 2001. Methods of Research and Thesis Writing

Example: Let: Ss= NV+ [(Se)2 x (1-p)] NSe +[(V)2 x p(1-p)] Ss = 700 (2.58)+(0.01)2 x (1-0.50)

700(0.01)+ (2.58)2 x 0.50 (1-0.50) = 1806+0.0001 x 0.50 7+6.6564 x 0.50 (0.50) = 1806 + 0.00005 7 + 1.6641 Ss = 208

4. Research Instrument either questionnaire, interview schedule, observation schedule, checklist, or rating scale. 5. Data Analysis- Descriptive analysis, Inferential analysis

Types of Measurement Scales Knowledge of the different types of variables and the way they are measured plays a crucial role in research.

Why? Because it will determine How the data can be analyzed What statistical tests can be applied to the data What interpretations can be made How the data can be presented What conclusions can be drawn

Types of Measurement Scales: 1) Nominal or classificatory scale enables the classification of individuals, objects or responses based on a common/shared property or characteristic. A variable measured on a nominal scale may have one, two or more sub-categories depending upon the extent of variation. Example: water and tree have only 1 sub-group whereas gender have 2 e.g., male & female

Types of Measurement Scales: 2) Ordinal or Ranking scale has all the properties of a nominal scale plus one of its own. Besides categorizing individuals, objects, responses or a property into sub-groups on the basis of a common characteristic, it ranks the sub-groups intro a certain order. Sub-groups have a relationship to one another. They are arranged in ascending or descending order

Example: Income- above average, average, below average; Attitudes- Agree, Neutral, Disagree

Types of Measurement Scales: 3) Interval scale has all the properties of an ordinal scale plus it enables the individuals, objects, responses, or properties to be placed at equally spaced intervals in relation to the spread of the variable. It has an arbitrary starting and terminating point. Example: Temperature: 0 Centigrade, 32 Fahrenheit ; Thurstone Attitudinal Scale (10-20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50 etc.)

Types of Measurement Scales: 4) Ratio scale has all the properties of an interval scale plus it has a fixed starting point e.g., a zero point. The ratio scale can be used for mathematical operations. Example: Actual Income, Actual Age, Height etc.