C

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

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C LANGUAGE - BASICS

SOFTWARE
Application S/W Ex: MS PACKAGE etc System S/W Ex: Complier,OS etc

Collection of Programs Software Collection of Instructions Programs

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Fundamentals
C was developed by Dennis Ritchie. C is a modular programming language. C is a Middle level language which combines the efficiency of machine language and ease of programming of high level language.

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Some of the strengths of C are that its general purpose its a small language ( i.e. limited keywords ) its portable ( common functions are machine-independent; they are provided in library files) it has a variety of data types e.g. integer, character, float etc.
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C CHARACTER SET
The only characters required by the C Programming Language are as follows: A - Z a -z 0 - 9

space . , : ; ' $ "

# % & ! _ {} [] () < > | + - / * =

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The layout of C Programs

The general form of a C program is as follows

pre-processor directives global declarations main() { local variables to function main ; statements associated with function main ;

}
f1() { local variables to function 1 ; statements associated with function 1 ; } etc
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KEYWORDS Keywords are the words whose meaning has already be defined (reserved words)

auto break case char continue default do double else extern float for
goto if int long register return short sizeof static struct switch typedef union unsigned void while VARIABLES In C, a quantity which may vary during execution is called a variable. Variable names are names given to the locations in memory of a computer where different constants are stored.

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Rules for naming variables

Variable name is any combination of alphabets, digits or

underscores.

First character in the variable must be an alphabet

No commas or blanks are allowed within a variable name No special symbol other than an underscore can be used in a variable name Eg : si_int pop_e_89 (valid) bad name (invalid)
8

int 1986tax #profit

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Constants
A constant is a quantity that doesnt change. 3 types of constants are string constants, numeric constants, character constants.

String constants is a sequence of alphanumeric characters enclosed in double quotation marks (eg: sri sairam)
Numeric constants are positive / negative numbers. There are four types of numeric constants (integer, floating point, hexa, octal) Character constants one character enclosed within single quotes denotes a character constant. (eg: A, a, DEPARTMENT OF TCP C LANGUAGE - BASICS 9 :)

DATA TYPES:

Primary Datatypes
int - integer: a whole number. (2 bytes) float - floating point value: ie a number with a fractional part. ( 4 bytes) double - a double-precision floating point value. (8 bytes) char - a single character. (1 byte) void - valueless special purpose type which we will examine closely in later sections (0 bytes)

Modifiers
short, long, signed , unsigned
DEPARTMENT OF TCP LANGUAGE - of BASICS 10 The modifiers define theCamount storage allocated to the

short int <= int <= long int float <= double <= long double Qualifiers The const keyword is used to create a read only variable. Once initialised, the value of the variable cannot be changed but can be used just like any other variable. const syntax main() { const float pi = 3.14; }

The const keyword is used as a qualifier to the following data types - int float char double struct. const int degrees = 360; const float pi const char quit
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= 3.14; = 'q';
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Secondary Data types

Array Pointer Structure Union

Enum

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OPERATORS Depending on the function performed the operators are classifies as 1. Arithmetic ( + - * / %) 2. 3. 4. Increment Decrement( ++ -- ) Relational ( < Logical ( && > || <= !) >= == !=)

5. Bitwise ( ~
6.

>>

<< & |
: (ternary) )

^ )

Conditional ( ?

7. Assignment 8. sizeof
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Increment, Decrement operators (infix, postfix)

int i=1,j=1; puts("\tDemo 1");

printf("\t%d %d\n",++i, j++);

printf("\t%d %d\n",i, j); /* O/P

/* O/P 2 1
2 2 */

*/

i=1;j=1;
puts("\n\tDemo 2"); printf("\t%d \n",i=j++); /* O/P printf("\t%d \n",i=++j); /* O/P
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1 3

*/ */
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Logical Operators Expression1 && expression2 Expression1 || expression2 !expression

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Bitwise operators (bit manipulation) operates on ints, chars Shift operator (<< , >>) shifts each bit in the operand to left / right

main()
{ unsigned int Value=4; unsigned int Shift=2; Value = Value << Shift; Value <<= Shift; printf("%d\n", Value);
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/* 4 = 0000 0100 */ /* 16 = 0001 0000 */ /* 64 = 0100 0000 */ /* Prints 64 */ }

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C LANGUAGE - BASICS

AND ,OR and XOR

These require two operands and will perform bit comparisons.

AND (&) will copy a bit to the result if it exists in both operands. main()

unsigned int a = 60; /* 60 = 0011 1100 */

unsigned int b = 13; unsigned int c = 0; c = a & b;
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/* 13 = 0000 1101 */ /* 12 = 0000 1100 */ }

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OR ( | ) will copy a bit if it exists in either / both operand. main() { unsigned int a = 60; /* 60 = 0011 1100 */ unsigned int b = 13; unsigned int c = 0; c = a | b; /* 61 = 0011 1101 */ } /* 13 = 0000 1101 */

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XOR ( ^ ) copies the bit if it is set (bit=1) in one operand (but not both).

main()
{ unsigned int a = 60; */ */ /* 60 = 0011 1100

unsigned int b = 13; /* 13 = 0000 1101

unsigned int c = 0;
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c = a ^ b;

C LANGUAGE - BASICS

/* 49 = 0011

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Conditional Operator
Expressions1 ? Expression2 : expressin3 Eg:

int x,y;
scanf(%d,&x);

y = ( x > 5 ? 3 : 4);
int i; scanf(%d,&i); (i==1 ? printf(Hello) : printf(Bye));
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Condition Clause
C evaluates the condition clause as a true or false statement although strictly C doesnt have a data representation for this type. Alternatively C evaluates a Boolean condition clause as an integer value i.e.
0

represents false. other integer represents true.

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any

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sizeof operator

sizeof will return the number of bytes reserved for a variable or

Data type.

The following code shows sizeof returning the length of a data type.
/* How big is an int? expect an answer of 4. */ main() {
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printf("%d \n", sizeof(int));

C LANGUAGE - BASICS

}
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INPUT OUTPUT FUNCTIONS

printf, scanf functions

The % Format Specifiers
variable type
%c %d (%i) %e (%E) %f %g (%G) char int float or double float or double float or double

Display
single character signed integer exponential format signed decimal use %f or %e as required

%o %p

int pointer

unsigned octalvalue address stored in pointer

%s
%u %x (%X)

array of char
int int

sequence of characters
unsigned decimal unsigned hex value C LANGUAGE - BASICS 23

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FORMATTING YOUR OUTPUT

Each specifier can be preceded by a modifier which determines how the value will be printed. The most general modifier is of the form: flag width.precision
The flag can be any of:
flag + meaning left justify always display sign

space display space if there is no sign 0 # pad with leading zeros use alternate form of specifier

The width specifies the number of characters used in total to display the value and precision indicates the number of characters used after the decimal point. Eg: %10.3f , %+5d
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#modifier
%#o
%#x %#f or%#e %#g

adds a leading 0 to the octal value

adds a leading 0x to the hex value ensures decimal point is printed displays trailing zeros

Control Codes
\b \f \n \r \t backspace formfeed new line carriage return horizontal tab

\'
\0

single quote
null

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CONTROL STATEMENTS 1. Sequence control statements 2. Selection or Decision Control statements (if , switch) 3. Repitition or Loop control statements (while, do while, for) Eg programs Using break and continue statements within loops

goto statement

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UNFORMATTED CONSOLE I/O FUNCTIONS getchar() getch() getche() putchar() gets() puts()

sprintf() function main() { int i=0; char ch = a; sprintf(str,%d%c%f,i,ch,a); }

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ARRAYS

Array is a collection of identical data objects which are stored in consecutive memory locations in a common heading or a variable name. Each storage location in an array is called an array element.
Declaring an Array Since array is also an identifier, it should be declared. Syntax: Array-type Array-name [size1][size2]..[size n]; Example : int marks[3]; int matrixA[2][2];
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Initializing arrays Arrays can be initialized in many ways. int a[]={10,20,30,40}; int a [4]; a[0]=10; a[1]=20;a[2]=30;a[3]=40; Int a[4]={1,2,3};
A String constant is a one dimensional array of characters terminated by a null (\0)
static char name[]={S,A,I,R,A,M,\0};

SAIRAM

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2 dimensional array
Initializing 2 dimensional array static int stud[4][2]={123,234,345,234,23,23,456,4565}; Or { {123,234},{345,234},{23,23},{456,4565}}; Multidimensional arrays

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FUNCTIONS
Function is a self-contained block of program that performs a coherent task of some kind. Gn. Format of the function definition function type functionname (arg1, arg2,,argn) datatype arg1, arg2;

{ body of the function

--------Return}

Function categories (eg pgm)

Local and Global variables
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SCOPE OF VARIABLES Visibility, Lifetime, Location

automatic, register, static, external

Internal or local variables are known as the variables which are declared inside a function. Memory space is automatically allocated as the function is entered and released when exit.
Default initial value is unpredictable. Scope is local to the block defined. Life within the block

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Main()

{
auto int I=1; {

Output?
{ auto int I=3; printf(%d\n,I); } printf(%d\n,I); }

auto int I=2;

printf(%d\n,I); }
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Register storage class Storage CPU registers Default value garbage Scope Local Life within the block Main()

{ register int I;
For (I=1; I <=10; I++) printf(%d,I); }
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Static Storage class

Storage memory Default value zero

Scope local to the block defined

Life value persists between different function calls Main()

{
Increment(); Increment(); Increment(); }
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Increment() { Static int I=1; Printf(%d\n,I); I=I+1;

}
Output?

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Extern storage class

Storage memory Default initial value zero

Scope Global
Life As long as the program execution come to an end. Eg: Int I; Main() { Printf(I=,I);
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Increment();
Increment(); Decrement();

Decrement();
} Increment() { I = I+1; printf (on incrementing I =%d\n,I);} Decrement() { I = I 1; printf (on decrementing I =%d\n,I);} Output?

Extern specified locally?

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typedef is used to define new data type names to make a program more readable to the programmer. For example:

main()
{ }

{
}

typedef int Pounds; Pounds money = 2

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STRUCTURE A Structure gathers together, different atoms of information that comprise a given entity. Need? Structures can be declared in various forms... struct x {int a; int b; int c;}; /* declaration */ struct {int a; int b; int c;} z;struct x z; All the examples above are structure declarations, The first gives x as a 'structure tag' - this is optional. The first and second declare the members of the structure. Second and third give z this is the variable that assumes the structure type.
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Eg: Struct student { char name[20]; int age; float height}; Static struct student class[2]={ {sai,18,5.4}, {ram,19,5.5}}; Accessing structure members Structure within structure

Struct dat { int day; int month ; int year };

Struct student {char name [10], long int rno, struct date dob}; NAME AGE HEIGHT

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UNION
Union stores values of different types in a single location. A union may contain one of many different types of values. The union only holds a value for one data type.

Eg:
union value { Int c; Double d; }; union value x; INT C DOUBLE D

x.c=10;
x.d=-34545.45;
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ENUMERATION

Enum userdefined name{ Member 1; member2; .}; /* enum datatype declaration */ Enum days {}; Enum days d1, d2, d3;

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POINTER

A pointer is a variable suitable for keeping memory addresses of other variables, the values you assign to a pointer are memory addresses of other variables (or other pointers).

C pointers are characterized by their value and datatype. The value is the address of the memory location the pointer points to, the type determines how the pointer will be incremented/decremented in pointer int *pi = &i; int * is the notation for a pointer to an int. & is the DEPARTMENT OF TCP C LANGUAGE - BASICS 44 operator which returns the address of its argument

 The Preprocessor The C preprocessor permits you to define simple macros that are evaluated and expanded prior to compilation. Commands begin with a #. Abbreviated list: #define : defines a macro #undef : removes a macro definition #include : insert text from file

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 #if : conditional based on value of expression #ifdef : conditional based on whether macro defined #ifndef : conditional based on whether macro is not defined #else : alternative #elif : conditional alternative defined() : preprocessor function: 1 if name defined, else 0
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Q&A
1.What is the difference between malloc and calloc? Answer:
Calloc initializes the allocated segment to nulls while malloc does not do so. 2. Datatypes can be classified as Primary and Secondary. What are secondary data types ? Give two examples for both. Answer: Secondary data types are based on primary data types .Primary Data types: int, short int, long int, float, double,char. Secondary Data types: structures, arrays, union.
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