2E4: SOLIDS & STRUCTURES

Lecture 9
Dr. Bidisha Ghosh
Notes:
http://www.tcd.ie/civileng/Staff/Bidisha.Ghosh/
Solids & Structures


Hookes Law
A material which regains its shape when the external
load is removed is considered as perfectly elastic.

From tensile tests, it can be seen within the range of elastic
behaviour of a material the elongation is proportional to both the
external load and the length of the bar.



For linearly elastic materials, this Stress is
proportional to strain.


The factor of proportionality between stress and
strain is called, Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs
modulus.
E has the dimension of stress
1 Pl Pl
E A AE
o = =
E o c =
We already know Hookes law, but what
does it tell us?
It tells us that how a material is going to behave and
change size (length/width/height).

How do we know E?
E is always found out from experiments. So, we have to
stretch or compress things to know that what is the value
of E for any material.

The relationship between stress and strain is defined by E.
And, actually it is the relation between load and
deformation.



So, for a material of known length and area a graph of load
(P) vs. deflection () will give us E.

Pl l
P
AE AE
o
| |
= =
|
\ .
Tensile Test
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hD_NJaZIpT0&feature=related
Tensile Test













Check this link for tensile test movie:
http://web.mst.edu/~mecmovie/
Extensometer
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A-nN7tnXLIM
Tensile Test













1. Linear elastic region. Slope
of this linear part is the
youngs modulus.
2. The proportional limit is the
stress when stress-strain
relationship is starts to
become nonlinear. (Beyond
this limit the material is not
elastic)
3. Yielding (strain hardening)
4. Ultimate strength
5. necking
6. Fracture Stress
7. Unload-reloading creates
strain hardening/work
hardening
Permanent
deformation
Stress-Strain Diagram










The Load-deformation plot does not provide material properties.
But, when converted to stress-strain plot it provides all the
information needed.
Notice elastic limit and proportionality
limits are different! Some materials are
still elastic beyond the linear (proportional)
section of the curve.
But in all practical cases they are same.
Notice ultimate stress is
higher than fracture
stress. This is because
this graph do not plot the
true stress accounting for
the reduction in area due
to necking. This is called
engineering stress. The
true stress actually is
higher at fracture.
Glossary
Proportionality Limit: The point till which the stress-strain curve is
linear.
Elastic Limit: The point beyond which the material will no longer go
back to its original shape when the load is removed.
Yield Point: It is the point at which the material will have an
appreciable elongation or yielding without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength: The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain
diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Fracture Strength: It is the strength of the material at rupture. This is
also known as the breaking strength.
Residual Strain: In the plastic region, after unloading the material
does not go back to its original shape and the remaining strain in the
material is called residual strain and the elongation is called
permanent set.
Work Hardening: Also known as strain hardening, after yielding
occurs the material can withstand increase amount of stress,
showing increase in strength.
True stress-strain & engineering stress-strain: The engineering
strain is calculated using the initial cross-sectional area of the
specimen.
Creep: A solid material deforms permanently under the influence of
continuous loading below yield stress.
Stress-Strain Diagram












Ductile materials are those which can yield and undergo
significant deformation in normal temperature.

Brittle materials rupture with little deformation.



Concrete
Concrete is very weak in tension (10% of its compressive
strength) and very strong in compression.

Concrete behaves like a brittle material when assumed
homogenous.









compression testing
of concrete

Properties of Typical Materials
Material
Young's Modulus
(Modulus of Elasticity)
(GPa)
Ultimate
Strength
(MPa)
Yield
Strength
(Mpa)
Aluminum
69 110 95
Bone (compression)
9 170
Concrete (high
strength)(compression)
30 40
Diamond (C) 1220
Wood (compression)
9-13 40-50
Glass
50 - 90 50
Steel
200 400 250
Hookes Law: Shear Modulus
shear modulus or modulus of
rigidity, G
Elasticity can be measured for
shear loading. Generally a
direct shear tests or torsion test
can be used.

Using Hookes law for the linear
elastic part of the stress-strain
diagram,








tan
G
F
A
G
t
t

=
= =
O
Direct shear test on soil!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L1fWPypBP0g
Poissons Ratio









In elastic range, the ratio of lateral strain to elastic
strain is constant.



The lateral strain caused due to Poisson's ratio do not
result/create any stress in lateral direction.

lateral strain
axial strain
and,
y
x
y x z x
c
v
c
c vc c vc
= =
= =
dx
dy
dz
Values of v
The concept is only valid for uniaxial strain and
isotropic material.
In case of perfectly incompressible material, v is 0.5. For
all practical cases,
0< v<0.5
Generally, between 0.25-0.35
For steel, assumed to be 0.3
For concrete, assumed to be 0.1
For incompressible material, 0.5 (may be, water)




Relation between elastic moduli:

0
(1 2 )
unit volume change or dialation, (1 2 )
x
x
V
e
V E
v o
v c
A
= = =
2(1 )
E
G
v
=
+
Strain Energy
The external work done on an elastic body in causing
it to distort/deform from its original state is stored in
the body as strain energy. For perfectly elastic body
no dissipation of energy occurs and this energy is
recoverable on unloading.
Strain energy is the
area under the linear
part of stress strain
curve
Strain Analysis
What happens when we apply 1-D stress?





What happens when we apply 2-D stress?

longitudinal strain, ; lateral strain,
x x
x z
E E
o o
c c v = =
longitudinal strain, ; lateral strain,
y y
x x
x z
E E E E
o o
o o
c v c v = =
What happens when we apply 3-D stress?











stress and strain are not
proportional any more!!









Strain Analysis
( )
;
( )
;
( )
;
y z
x
x
y
x z
y
x y
z
z
E E
E E
E E
o o
o
c v
o
o o
c v
o o
o
c v
+
=
+
=
+
=
How much does the volume change?
3-D case
Lets assume initial volume, abc

Final volume
=

Change in volume
=




Hence, strain or volumetric strain,

a
b
c
(1 ) .(1 ) .(1 )
x y z
a b c c c c + + +
(1 )(1 )(1 ) 1
1
[ ( ) ( ) ( )]
x y z
x y z x y y z z x z x y
x y z y x z z x y
abc
abc
abc
E
c c c
c c c c c c c c c c c c
o v o o o v o o o v o o
( + + +

( = + + + + + +

= + + + + +
( )
(1 2 )
y z x
v
E
o o o
c v
+ +
=