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The Tissue Level of Organization

Chapter 4

Ch 4 Outline
4 major tissue types- functions, features 4 types of membranes & functions Injury Aging

Four Types of Tissues


Tissues- collections of cells that perform specific, limited functions Histology- study of tissues

4 Types of tissue:
Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscle tissue Neural tissue

Four Types of Tissues


Epithelial tissue
Covers exposed surfaces Lines internal passageways Forms glands

Connective tissue
Fills internal spaces Supports other tissues Transports materials Stores energy

Four Types of Tissues


Muscle tissue
Specialized for contraction Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs

Neural tissue
Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another

Epithelial Tissues
Epithelia- layers of cells covering internal or

external surfaces
Glands- structures that produce fluid secretions, either attached or derived

from epithelia

Characteristics of Epithelia
Cellularity- composed almost entirely of cells held together by cell junctions

Polarity- exposed surface faces exterior of body or internal space (apical) and side attached to base(basal), structural & functional differences

Polarity of Epithelial Cells

Characteristics of Epithelia
Attachment- base of epithelium bound to basement membrane (basal lamina)

Avascularity- lack blood vessels, obtain nutrients by diffusion Regeneration- damaged & lost cells continuously replaced through stem cell division, very high rates

Functions of Epithelial Tissues


Provide physical protection- abrasion,
dehydration, biological/chemical agent

Control permeability- ions, nutrients

Provide sensation- sensory nerves provide info


about external environment

Produce specialized secretions (glandular epithelium)- physical protection, temp regulation,


chemical messengers

Specializations of Epithelial Cells


In order to perform functions, highly specialized structure- polarity: cell divided into 2 distinct regions

Apical surfaces: exposed to internal or external


environment

Microvilli increase absorption or secretion Cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid

Basolateral surfaces:
Base- cellular attachment Sides- cells contact neighbors

Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia


To be an effective barrier must form a complete cover:
Intercellular connections Attachment to basal lamina Epithelial maintenance and repair

Intercellular Connections
Epithelial cells tightly bound together
CAMs (cell adhesion molecules)- transmembrane
proteins

Intercellular cement- proteoglycans contain hyaluronan


(hyaluronic acid)

Intercellular Connections
Cell junctions- form bonds with other cells or extracellular material:
Occluding (tight) junctions Gap junctions Macula adherens (desmosomes)

Occluding (Tight) junctions


Between two plasma membranes
Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web Prevents passage of water and solutes Isolates wastes in the lumen of GI tract

Occluding Junctions

Gap junctions
Allow rapid communication
Held together by connexons (channel proteins) Allow ions to pass between cells Coordinate contractions in heart muscle

Gap Junctions

Macula adherens (Desmosomes)


CAMs, dense areas, intercellular cement link plasma membranes Spot desmosomes- tie cells together & allow bending, twisting Hemidesmosomes- attach cells to the basal lamina

Attached to cytoskeleton

Spot Desmosomes

CAMS

Small discs connected to intermediate filaments, which function to stabilize cell shape

Intercellular cement

Hemidesmosome

Attach cell to extracellular filaments in basal lamina Stabilize cell position and anchor to underlying tissues

Attachment to the Basal Lamina


Lamina lucida- clear layer closest to epithelium
Glycoproteins & fine protein filaments Thin layer secreted by epithelia Restricts movement of proteins from underlying connective tissue into epithelium

Lamina densa- dense layer


Thick fibers produced by connective tissue Strength and filtration

Epithelial Maintenance and Repair


Constantly replaced by division of germinative cells (stem cells) near basal lamina

Exposure to enzymes, toxic chemicals, bacteria, mechanical abrasion

Classification of Epithelia
Singular epithelium; plural epithelia Classes of Epithelia
Based on shape

Squamous epithelia: thin and flat


Cuboidal epithelia: square shaped Columnar epithelia: tall, slender rectangles Based on layers Simple epithelium: single layer of cells, no polarity Stratified epithelium: several layers of cells

Simple Epithelia

Stratified Epithelia

Simple Squamous Epithelia


Thin, flat, irregular- smooth surface Simple squamous epithelium
Absorption and diffusion Aveoli, lining body cavities, lining heart & blood vessels

Mesothelium- lines body


cavities

Endothelium- lines heart and


blood vessels

Simple Squamous Epithelia

Located where mechanical stress is severe- skin surface, lining of mouth, esophagus, anus Protects against attacks Keratin- protein adds strength & water resistant

Sratified Cuboidal Epithelia Simple Cuboidal Epithelia

Simple cuboidal epitheliumsecretion and absorption (kidney tubules)

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelia

Stratified cuboidal epithelia- sweat ducts and mammary ducts

-Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling and returns to its previous shape without damage -Appearance changes as stretching occurs

Columnar Epithelia
Simple columnar epithelium
Absorption and secretion

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium


Cilia movement

Stratified columnar epithelium


Protection

Simple Columnar Epithelia

Absorption and secretion- small intestine

Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelia

-Several cell types, varying shapes & functions -Not truly stratified -Cilia movement- nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi

Stratified Columnar Epithelia

-Relatively rare -Protection along pharynx, epiglottis, anus, urethra

Glandular Epithelia
Specialized for secretion Endocrine glands
Release hormones into interstitial fluid
No ducts

Thyroid gland, pituitary gland

Exocrine glands
Produce secretions onto epithelial surfaces
Through ducts Saliva, sweat, tears, milk Categorized by mode & type of secretion, structure

Modes of Glandular Secretion by Exocrine Glands

Merocrine Secretion

Produced in Golgi apparatus Released by vesicles- exocytosis Most common secretion mode Sweat glands, salivary glands

Apocrine Secretion

Produced in Golgi apparatus Released by shedding cytoplasm Mammary gland

Holocrine Secretion

Released by cells bursting, killing gland cells Gland cells replaced by stem cells Sebaceous gland- oil coating on hair

Types of Secretion by Exocrine Glands


Serous glands:
watery secretions- saliva

Mucous glands:
secrete mucins- mucus

Mixed exocrine glands:


both serous and mucous

Gland Structure- Exocrine Glands


Unicellular glands- independent, scattered cells
Mucous (goblet) cells- intestinal lining

Multicellular glands- glandular epithelia & aggregations of gland cells Structure of the duct- simple or compound Shape of secretory portion of the gland
Tubular (straight/coiled) or blind pockets

Relationship between ducts & glandular areas


Branched

Simple Multicellular Exocrine Glands

Simple- single duct does not divide on way to gland cell

Compound Multicellular Exocrine Glands

Compound- duct divides one or more times on way to gland cell

Tubular Exocrine Glands

Tubular- form tubes, straight or coiled

Alveolar/Acinar Exocrine Glands

Alveolar- blind pockets Tubuloalveolar- both tubes and pockets

Connective Tissues
Connect epithelium to the rest of the body
Dense layer of basal lamina produced by connective tissue

Functions:
Provide structure, support- bone Store energy- fat Transport materials- blood Defending body from microbes Protect organs

Have no contact with outside environment

Connective Tissues
Characteristics of Connective Tissues
Specialized cells
Solid extracellular protein fibers Fluid extracellular ground substance

Extracellular components make up the matrix Majority of connective tissue volume Determines specialized function

Classification of Connective Tissues


Connective tissue proper- connect & protect
Many cell types & extracellular fibers in syrupy ground substance
Loose & dense connective tissue (adipose, tendons)

Fluid connective tissues- transport


Distinctive cell populations, watery matrix, dissolved proteins (blood, lymph)

Supportive connective tissues- structural strength


Protect soft tissue, support weight of body (cartilage,
bone) Matrix- gel or calcified (bone)

Connective Tissues
Nine Cell Types of Connective Tissue Proper
Fibroblasts Fibrocytes Adipocytes Mesenchymal cells Melanocytes
Macrophages Mast cells Lymphocytes Microphages

Connective Tissue Proper Cells


Fibroblasts
Most abundant cell type:
Always found in all connective tissue proper Secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement)

Fibrocytes
2nd most abundant cell type:
Found in all connective tissue proper Maintain the fibers of connective tissue proper

Connective Tissue Proper Cells


Macrophages
Big eaters immune system:
Eat pathogens & damaged cells Fixed macrophages- stay in tissue Free macrophages- migrate

Adipocytes
Fat cells- each cell stores a single, large fat droplet

Mesenchymal Cells
Stem cells that respond to injury or infection:
Differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages

Connective Tissue Proper Cells


Melanocytes
Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin

Mast Cells
Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection:
Release histamine and heparin

Basophils (white blood cells) also contain histamine and heparin

Connective Tissue Proper Cells


Lymphocytes
Specialized immune cells in lymphatic system:
B-cells (plasma cells)- produce antibodies T-cells

Microphages (neutrophils, eosinophils)


Phagocytic white blood cells:
Respond to signals from macrophages & mast cells

Connective Tissue Fibers


Collagen fibers
Most common fibers in connective tissue proper
Long, straight, unbranched

Strong and flexible


Tendons & ligaments

Connective Tissue Fibers


Reticular fibers
Network of interwoven fibers- stroma Strong & flexible Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) & blood vessels, nerves Sheaths around organs

Connective Tissue Fibers


Elastic fibers
Contain elastin Branched and wavy Return to original length after stretching Elastic ligaments of vertebrae

Connective Tissues
Ground Substance
Clear, colorless, viscous (thick) Fills spaces between cells & slows pathogen movement

Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper

Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper

Embryonic Connective Tissues


Not found in adults Mesenchyme Embryonic stem cells 1st connective tissue in embryos Gives rise to all other connective tissue

Embryonic Connective Tissues

Mucous connective tissue Whartons jelly Loose embryonic connective tissue

Loose Connective Tissues


Packing materials of the body Fill spaces between organs, cushion, stabilize specialized cells in organs, support epithelia, blood vessels, nerves, store lipids Three types in adults Areolar Adipose Reticular

Areolar Tissue
Loose Connective Tissues
Least specialized Open framework Viscous ground substance most volume

Elastic fibers
Holds blood vessels & capillary beds Under skin (subcutaneous layer), padding

Adipose Tissue
Loose Connective Tissues
Contains many adipocytes (fat cells) Types of adipose tissue
White fat:
Most common Stores fat, absorbs shocks, slows heat loss (insulation)

Brown fat:
More vascularized Adipocytes have many mitochondria When stimulated by nervous system, fat break down accelerates, releasing energy Energy absorbed from surrounding tissues- heats body

Adipose Tissue
Adipose cells
Adipocytes in adults do not divide:
Expand to store fat Shrink as fats are released

Mesenchymal cells divide and differentiate:


Produce more fat cells when more storage is needed

Adipose Tissues

Functions- padding, absorbs shock, insulation, packing/filler around structures

Reticular Tissue Loose Connective Tissues

Provides support Complex, 3D network- stroma


Support functional cells (parenchyma)

Reticular organs
Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow

Dense Connective Tissues


Connective tissues proper, tightly packed with high numbers of collagen or elastic fibers
Dense regular connective tissue Dense irregular connective tissue Elastic tissue

Dense Regular Connective Tissues

Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers Tendons- attach muscles to bones Ligaments- connect bone to bone & stabilize organs Aponeuroses- tendinous sheet that attaches a broad, flat muscles to another muscle or

Dense Irregular Connective Tissues

Interwoven networks of collagen fibers


Strengthen &support areas subjected to stress from multiple directions, gives skin strength Sheaths cartilage- perichondrium Sheaths bones- periosteum Form capsules around some organs (liver, kidneys, spleen)

Elastic Tissue Dense Regular Connective Tissues

Made of elastic fibers


Elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae

Fluid Connective Tissues


Blood & lymph Watery matrix of dissolved proteins Fluid Elements- extracellular
Plasma Interstitial fluid Lymph

Formed Elements- specific cell types Formed elements of blood


Red blood cells- erythrocytes White blood cells- leukocytes Platelets

Formed Elements of the Blood

Connective Tissues
Lymph- extracellular fluid
Collected from interstitial space Monitored by immune system Transported by lymphatic system Returned to venous system

Fluid Tissue Transport Systems


Cardiovascular system (blood)
Arteries
Capillaries Veins

Lymphatic system (lymph)


Lymphatic vessels

Supportive Connective Tissues


Support soft tissues and body weight
Cartilage - gel-type ground substance
For shock absorption and protection

Bone- calcified (made rigid by calcium salts,

minerals) For weight support

Cartilage Characteristics
Cartilage Matrix- firm gel contains proteoglycans
derived from chondroitin sulfates complexed with ground substance proteins Chondrocytes (cartilage cells)- occupy small chambers- lacunae

Cartilage Structure- no blood vessels, exchange by


diffusion only Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor

Perichondrium- sets cartilage apart from surrounding


tissues Outer, fibrous layer- strength Inner, cellular layer- growth and maintenance

Interstitial Growth of Cartilage

*Most important during development - Enlarges cartilage from within

Appositional Growth of Cartilage


- Adds new layers of cartilage to the surface

Hyaline Cartilage

Hyaline cartilage (most common)


Stiff, flexible support Reduces friction between bones Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, trachea, elbows, knees

Elastic Cartilage

Elastic cartilage
Supportive but bends easily Found in external ear and epiglottis

Fibrous Cartilage

Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage)


Limits movement Prevents bone-to-bone contact Pads knee joints Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs

Bone (Osseous) Tissue


Strong (calcified: calcium salt deposits) Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers) Osteocytes (bone cells)- in lacunae
Arranged around central canals within matrix Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access blood supply

Periosteum
Covers bone surfaces except in joint cavities Fibrous layer Cellular layer

Supportive Connective Tissue- Bone

Matrix- mixture of calcium salts (calcium phosphate, carbonate) and collagen fibers

Supportive Connective Tissues

Membranes
Membranes- physical barriers that line or cover portions of the body
Consist of epithelium supported by connective tissues

Four Types of Membranes


Mucous membranes Serous membranes Cutaneous membrane Synovial membranes

Mucous Membranes
Line passageways with external connections
Digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive tracts

Epithelial surfaces must be moist


Reduce friction & facilitate absorption and excretion

Lamina propria- areolar tissue

Serous Membranes
Line cavities not open to outside Thin but strong Have fluid, transudate, to reduce friction Parietal portion- covers cavity Visceral portion, serosa- covers organs

Three Serous Membranes


Pleura:
Lines pleural cavities Covers lungs

Peritoneum:
Lines peritoneal cavity Covers abdominal organs

Pericardium:
Lines pericardial cavity Covers heart

Cutaneous Membrane
Skin, surface of the body

Thick, waterproof, dry

Synovial Membranes
Articulating joint cavities (bones very close or touching)

Produce synovial fluid (lubricant)- joint movement is important in stimulating formation & circulation of fluid
Protect the ends of bones

Internal Framework of the Body


Connective tissues
Provide strength and stability Maintain positions of internal organs Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves

Fasciae (singular form is fascia)


Connective tissue layers surround, support organs Three types of fasciae
Superficial fascia Deep fascia Subserous fascia

Muscle Tissue
Specialized for contraction Produces all body movement Three types of muscle tissue
Skeletal muscle

Large body muscles responsible for movement


Cardiac muscle Found only in the heart

Smooth muscle
Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood
vessels; urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive, reproductive tracts), contractility & support

Classification of Muscle Cells


Striated- muscle cells with a banded appearance Nonstriated- not banded; smooth Muscle cells- single nucleus or multinucleate Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily or involuntarily

Striated Muscle

Nonstriated Muscle

Muscle Tissue- Skeletal


Long, thin, very large- muscle fibers Several hundred nuclei! Do NOT divide New fibers- myosatellite cells Striated voluntary musclenervous system

Muscle Tissue- Cardiac


Cardiac cells- cardiocytes Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs Regulated by pacemaker cells Striated involuntary muscle

Muscle Tissue- Smooth


Smooth muscle cells Small and tapered Divide and regenerate No striations Nonstriated involuntary muscle

Neural Tissue
Specialized for conducting electrical impulses Rapidly senses internal or external environment

Processes information and controls responses Central nervous system Brain Spinal cord

Two Kinds of Neural Cells


Neurons
Nerve cells Perform electrical communication

Neuroglia
Supporting cells Repair and supply nutrients to neurons

Cell Parts of a Neuron


Cell body- nucleus Dendrites- short branches extending from cell body
Receive incoming signals

Axon (nerve fiber)- long, thin extension of cell body


Carries outgoing electrical signals

Tissue Injuries and Repair


Tissues respond to injuries to maintain homeostasis Cells restore homeostasis with two processes
Inflammation- tissues 1st response to injury Regeneration

Inflammation
Inflammation = inflammatory response

Inflammatory response (signs & symptoms):


Swelling Redness Heat Pain

Can be triggered by trauma (physical injury) or infection

Process of Inflammation
Damaged cells release chemical signals into surrounding interstitial fluid Prostaglandins, proteins, potassium ions

Process of Inflammation
Damaged cells break down, lyse- contents leak out
Lysosomes release hydrolytic enzymes Tissue destruction surrounding tissues- necrosis

Process of Inflammation
Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate in the wound
Abscess: pus trapped in an enclosed area

Process of Inflammation
Injury stimulates mast cells to release:
Histamine Heparin Prostaglandins

Process of Inflammation
Dilation of blood vessels (redness & heat) Increases blood circulation Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area Removes wastes Plasma diffuses into the area Swelling and pain Phagocytic white blood cells Clean up the area- damaged cells, pathogens

An Introduction to Inflammation

Regeneration
Injury or infection is cleaned up healing begins Fibrocytes move into necrotic area
Lay down collagen fibers- bind area together (scar tissue)

New cells migrate into area or mesenchymal stem cells produce them Not all tissues can regenerate
Epithelia & connective tissues regenerate well Cardiac cells & neurons do not regenerate (or regenerate poorly)

Aging and Tissue


Tissue repair speed, efficiency decreases with age: Slower rate of energy consumption (metabolism) Hormonal alterations Reduced physical activity

Chemical & structural tissue changes


Thinning epithelia and connective tissues Increased bruising and bone brittleness Cardiovascular disease- cumulative damage Mental deterioration

Aging and Cancer Incidence


Cancer rates increase with age
1 in 4 people in US develops cancer Cancer is the #2 cause of death in US Environmental chemicals, cigarette smoke cause cancer
Longer exposure, accumulate mutations
7 mutations in 1 cell

Plastics (food); pesticides (air, water, soil, food); air pollution (industry, vehicles)

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