Processes and Process

Variables
Chapter 2
Material and Energy Balances
Evaluation of performance of process
operation requires the knowledge of the
amounts, composition, conditions of
materials that enter and leave each
process units.
This chapter presents methods of
calculating variables that characterize the
operation of processes and individual
process units.
Processes and
Process Variables
Density and
Specific Gravity
Flow rate
Chemical
Composition
Pressure
Temperature
What are in this chapter?
Topic Outcomes
At the end of Chapter 2, you should:
Explain in words the difference between density
and specific gravity, the meaning of gram-mole,
lb-mole, mol and kmol, two methods of measuring
temp. and pressure, the meaning of the absolute
pressure and gauge pressure and why
atmospheric pressure is not necessarily 1 atm.
Calculate the density of a liquid and solid species
from a knowledge of the specific gravity.
Calculate the quantities mass, volume, and moles
from a knowledge of the third quantity for any
species of known density and molecular weight.
Topic Outcomes-cont.
Give the composition of a mixture expressed in
terms of mass fractions and calculate the
composition in terms of mole fraction.
Determine the average molecular weight of a
mixture from the mass or molar composition of
the mixture.
Convert pressure expressed as a head of a
fluid to the equivalent pressure expressed as a
force per unit area.
Convert among temperatures in K, C, F and R.

Process
Process- any operation that cause a physical or
chemical change in a substance. Can consist of
several process unit.
Process streams connecting process units and
form the process flow sheet.
Chemical engineer is responsible to design and
operate the process.
1) Design
: formation of process flow sheet/layout
: specification of individual process unit
: associated operating variables
2) Operate: running day-to-day process
Process
Unit
Input/Feed Output/Product
Process
Unit
Output/Product
Density & Specific Volume
Density ()
mass per unit volume of a substance
Unit: g/cm
3
; kg/m
3
; lb
m
/ft
3


Specific Volume
volume per unit mass of a substance
inverse of density
Unit: cm
3
/g; m
3
/kg; ft
3
/lbm
Density
Densities of pure solids and liquids are
essentially independent of pressure and vary
relatively slightly with temperature.

The density of a substance can be used as a
conversion factor to relate the mass and the
volume of the substances.

The density of CCl
4
is 1.595 g/cm
3
; what is
a) Mass of 20 cm
3
of CCl
4





b) Volume of 6.20 lb
m
of CCl
4
20 cm
3
1.595 g
= 31.9 g
cm
3

6.20 lb
m
454 g cm
3

= 1760 cm
3

1 lb
m
1.595 g
Try This
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity (SG)
Ratio of the density () of a substance to
the density of a reference (
ref
) substance at a
specific condition:
SG =
substance
/
ref

Density of water at 4C is used as a reference
density; whereas the value is showed below:

ref
=H
2
O(l) (4C) = 1.000 g/cm
3

= 1000 kg/m
3

= 62.43 lbm/ft
3
SG is a dimensionless. To get the density of a
substance, multiply the SG value to the value of
reference density,
ref
.

A liquid has a SG of 0.50. Find
a) Density in g/cm
3
b) Density in lbm/ft
3
c) Mass of 3 cm
3
of this liquid
d) Volume occupied by 18 g of this liquid
Try This
Solution
a)
=
0.5 1 g
= 0.5 g/cm
3

cm
3

b)
=
0.5 62.43 lb
m

= 31.215 lb
m
/ft
3

ft
3

c)

3 cm
3
0.5 1 g
= 1.5 g
cm
3

d)

18 g cm
3

= 36 cm
3

0.5 g
Flow Rate
Continuous process involve movement of materials
from one point to another with certain rate.

Flow rate- the rate at which a material is
transported through a process line.

Flow rate can be expressed as :
mass flow rate (mass/time)
volumetric flow rate (volume/time)

The mass flow rates of process streams must be
known for many process calculations, but it is
frequently more convenient to measure volumetric
flow rates than mass flow rate.

IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Statement from pg 46
[The density of a fluid can be used to convert a
known volumetric flow rate of a process stream
to the mass flow rate of that stream or vice
versa.]
Observe Eq. (3.2-1)


Flow Rate-cont.

Flow meter is a device mounted in a process
line that provides a continuous reading of the
flow rate in the line.

Two commonly used flow meter are rotameter
and orifice meter.

Flow meter
Rotameter
Orifice meter
(based on
pressure drop)
Chemical
Composition
Moles and
Molecular Weight
Mass and
Mole Fractions
Average
Molecular Weight
Concentration
Parts per Million (ppm)
& Part per Billion (ppb)
Chemical Composition
Moles & Molecular Weight
Atomic weight of element- mass of an atom
based on carbon isotope
12
C.

Molecular weight of compound- sum of the
atomic weights of atoms that constitute a
molecule of the compound.

Moles= Mass / Molecular Weight.

Unit for moles are g-mole, kmol, lb-mole etc (g-
mole is same as mol )



IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Statement from pg 48
[ The molecular weight may thus be used as a
conversion factor that relates the mass and the
number of moles of a quantity of the substance.]
Observe Eq. (3.3-1) and (Eq. 3.3-2)

Moles & Molecular Weight-cont.
If the molecular weight of a substance is M,
then there are M kg/kmol, M g/mol, and M
lb
m
/lb-mole of this substance.

At 1 mol of a substance, its mass in gram is
equal to its molecular weight. Eg. CO has
molecular weight of 28. Hence, at 1 mol,
mass of CO is 28 g. At 1 kmol, mass of CO is
28 kg.

One g-mole of any species contains 6.02 x
10
23
(Avogadros number) molecules of that
species.




IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Statement from pg 49
[ The molecular weight of a species can be used to
relate the mass flow rate of a continuous stream of
this species to the corresponding molar flow rate.]
Observe Eq. (3.3-3) and (Eq. 3.3-4)

1. How many gram of O
2
consist in 100g of CO
2
?

2. Find number of molecules of CO
2
in 100g of CO
2
?

An IQ test
Mass and Mole Fractions
Process streams consist of mixtures of liquids or
gases, or solutions of one or more solutes in a
liquid solvents.

The following terms may be used to define the
composition of a mixture of substances, including
a species A.

Mass fraction: x
A
= mass of A / total mass
Unit: kg A/kg total; g A/g total; lb
m
A/lb
m
total

Mole fraction: y
A
= moles of A/ total moles
Unit: kmol A/kmol total; lb-moles A/lb-mole total
A mixture of gases has the following mass
composition:
O
2
16%
CO 4%
CO
2
17%
N
2
63%
What is the molar composition?
Try This
4 steps to convert from mass fractions to moles
fractions:

1. Assuming as a basis of calculation a mass of the
mixture (e.g. 100 kg or 100 lbm).

2. Using the known mass fractions to calculate the
mass of each component in the basis quantity.

3. Convert these masses to moles using their
molecular weights.

4. Taking the ratio of the moles of each component
to the total number of moles.
A mixture of gases has the following mass
composition:
O
2
16%
CO 4%
CO
2
17%
N
2
63%
What is the molar composition?
Try This
Solution
Basis: 100g of mixture
Component
Mass
Fraction Mass MW Moles Mole Fraction
i x
i
m
i
M
i
n
i
y
i
O
2
0.16 16 32 0.500 0.152
CO 0.04 4 28 0.143 0.044
CO
2
0.17 17 44 0.386 0.118
N
2
0.63 63 28 2.250 0.686
Total 1.00 100 3.279 1.000
If 100 lb
m
/min of A (M
A
=2) and 300 lb
m
/min
of B (M
B
=3) flow through pipes, find

1. Mass fractions of A and B
2. Mole fractions of A and B
3. Mass flow rate of A
4. Molar flow rate of B
5. Total mass flow rate
6. Total molar flow rate

FROM GROUP DISCUSSION
Solution
1. 0.25 lb
m
A/lb
m
; 0.75 lb
m
B/lb
m
2. 0.333 mole A/mole; 0.667 mole B/mole
3. 100 lb
m
A/min
4. 100 lb-mole B/min
5. 400 lb
m
/min
6. 150 lb-moles/min

Average Molecular Weight
The average molecular weight (or mean
molecular weight) of a mixture, (kg/kmol,
lbm/lb-mole, etc.), is the ratio of the total mass
to the total number of moles of all species.

If y
i
is the mole fraction of the component i of the
mixture and M
i
is the molecular weight:


If x
i
is the mass fraction of the component i of
the mixture and M
i
is the molecular weight:


M

= + + =
component all
i i 2 2 1 1
M y ..... M y M y M

= + + =
component all
i
i
2
2
1
1
M
x
.....
M
x
M
x
M
1
Concentration
Mass concentration (c
A
):



Molar concentration (C
A
):



Molarity :

mixture of Volume
A of mass
c
A
=
mixture of Volume
A of moles
C
A
=
Liter in mixture of Volume
A of moles
Molarity =
IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Statement from pg 52
[ The concentration of a substance in a mixture or
solution can be used as a conversion factor to
relate the mass (or moles) of a component in a
sample mixture to the sample volume or to relate
the mass (or moles) flow rate or a component of
a continuous stream to the total volumetric flow
rate of the stream. ]

Parts per Million (ppm)&
Parts per Billion (ppb)
To express the concentrations of trace species in
mixtures of gases or liquids.

May refer to mass ratios (usual for liquids) or mole
ratios (usual for gases). How many parts (in gram or
moles) of the species are present per million or billion
parts of the mixture.
ppm
i
= y
i
x 10
6
ppb
i
= y
i
x 10
9

IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Example given from pg 53
[ Air in the area of a power plant is said to contain
15 ppm SO
2
.]

Pressure
A pressure is the ratio of a force to the area on
which the force acts (P= F/A).

Pressure units: N/m
2
, dynes/cm
2
, lb
f
/in
2
, psi, Pa.

IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Statement on page 54
[The fluid pressure may be defined as the ratio
F/A, where F is the minimum force that would
have to be exerted on a frictionless plug in the
hole to keep the fluid from emerging.]
Observe Figure (3.4-1)

IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Statement on page 54
[The pressure P of the fluid at the base of the
column-called the hydrostatic pressure of the
fluid.]
Observe Figure (3.4-2) and Eq. (3.4-1)

IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Statement on page 55
[as a head of a particular fluid-that is, as the
height of a hypothetical column of this fluid that
would exert the given pressure at its base if the
pressure at the top were zero.]
Observe Eq. (3.4-2)
The fluid pressure may be defined as the ratio
F/A, where F is the minimum force that would
have to be applied on a frictionless plug in the
hole to keep the fluid from emerging.

F (N)
P (N/m
2
)
A (m
2
)
P (N/m
2
)
F (N)
A (m
2
)
Pressure-cont.
Pressure-cont.
Hydrostatic pressure of the fluid- the
pressure P of the fluid at the base of the
column.


Head - the height of a hypothetical column of
the fluid that would exert the given pressure
at the top were zero.

gh P P + =
0
( ) fluid of head
h fluid
gP
area
force
P =
|
.
|

\
|
Atmospheric, Absolute & Gauge Pressure
The atmospheric pressure can be thought of
as the pressure at the base of a column of
fluid (air) located at the point measurement
(e.g. at sea level).

A typical value of the atmospheric pressure at
sea level, 760.0 mm Hg, has been designated
as a standard pressure of 1 atmosphere.

The fluid pressure is referred as absolute
pressures. In a perfect vacuum, the pressure is
zero.
Pressure-measuring devices give gauge pressure
of fluid.
A gauge pressure of zero indicated that the
absolute pressure (fluid pressure) is equal to
atmospheric pressure.
Relationship between absolute pressure and
gauge pressure is:

Atmospheric, Absolute & Gauge
Pressure-cont.
atmopheric gauge absolute
P P P + =
Fluid Pressure Measurement
Common pressure- measurement devices-
Bourdon gauge and monometer.

Monometer- U-shaped tube partially filled with
fluid of known density.

Manometer gives the measurement of pressure in
pressure difference, P (P
1
-P
2
).

Manometers are used in several ways (Figure
3.4-4). Most common ways is differential
monomer. In each diagram P
1
is higher than P
2
.


IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Statement on page 57
[When the ends of the tube are exposed to different
pressures, the level drops in high-pressure arm
and rises in low-pressure arm. The pressures
difference can be calculated from the measured
difference between the liquid level in each arm.]

IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Statement on page 58
[In particular, the pressure at the height of the
lower surface of a monometer fluid is the same in
both arms of the monometer.]
Observe Figure 3.4-5 and Eq. (3.4-5)

Equation for general manometer;



As fluids 1 and 2 are the same,
1
=
2
= . The
equation is reduced to where d
1
-d
2
=h:



If P
2
is atmospheric pressure, the pressure at
pint 1 is the difference in the levels of the
manometer fluid, h.
gh gd P gd P
f
+ + = +
2 2 2 1 1 1
( ) P gh P P
f
A = =
2 1
h P P
atm
=
1
IN GROUP DISCUSSION
Example 3.4-3 on page 59

Temperature of a substance in a particular
state of aggregation (solid, liquid, or gas) is a
measure of the average kinetic energy
possessed by the substance molecules.

Some temperature measuring devices:
resistance thermometer, thermocouple,
pyrometer and thermometer.
Temperature
The following relationship may be used to
convert a temperature expressed in one
defined scale unit to its equivalent in another;


Temperature-cont.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 32 8 . 1
8 . 1
67 . 459
15 . 273
+ =
=
+ =
+ =
C T F T
K T R T
F T R T
C T K T

Consider the interval from 20F to 80F

a) Calculate the equivalent temperature in C
and the interval between them.




C 33.3 6.7) ( 26.6 T T T
C 26.6 C
1.8
32 80
F) (80 T
C 6.7 C
1.8
32 20
F) (20 T
1.8
32 F) T(
C) T(
1 2
2
1
= = =
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
=
|
.
|

\
|

=

=
Try This