UNIT-2

JOINING PROCESSES

Welding
Welding is an art of joining metals by heating and then pressing together.
Welding is a materials joining process in which two or more parts are combined at their contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure.

The process of joining may also take place by other means of riveting or by fastening nut and bolts. If a joint can be disassembled then joining method is called temporary joining method. If the formed cannot be disassembled without breaking it then the joint is called permanent joint.

CLASSIFIATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

(a) It can be classified as fusion welding or pressure welding depending upon on the application of heat. If application of heat is not required, it is called pressure welding.

 (b) In case of fusion welding it can classified low temperature welding and high temperature welding.
When heat is generated to develop low temperature it is called low temperature welding like soldering and brazing. Other fusion welding methods are high temperature welding methods.

basis of method of heat generation

(c) Fusion welding can also be classified on the basis of method of heat generation like
gas welding, electric arc welding, resistance welding, thermit welding, etc.

the basis of the type of joint produced

(d) On the basis of the type of joint produced it can be categorized as
butt welding, seam welding, spot welding, lap joint welding, etc.

 Some 50 different types of welding operations have been catalogued by the American Welding Society. They use various types or combinations of energy to provide the required power. We can divide the welding processes into two major groups: (1) fusion welding and (2) solid-state welding.

fusion welding
1- Gas welding: 2- Electric Arc welding:

1- Gas welding
Oxyacetylene welding (OAW) Gas welding is a welding process that melts and joins metals by heating them with a flame caused by the reaction between a fuel gas and oxygen. Oxyacetylene welding (OAW), is the most commonly used gas welding process because of its high flame temperature. A flux may be used to deoxidize and cleanse the weld metal. The flux melts, solidifies, and forms a slag skin on the resultant weld metal. three different types of flames in oxyacetylene welding: neutral, reducing, and oxidizing (4), which are described next.

Alternative Gases for OAW

Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP) Hydrogen Propylene Propane Natural Gas

Three Types of Flames

A. Neutral Flame This refers to the case where oxygen (O2) and acetylene (C2H2) are mixed in equal amounts and burned at the tip of the welding torch .A short inner cone and a longer outer envelope characterize a neutral flame.

 B. Reducing Flame When excess acetylene is used, the resulting flame is called a reducing flame. The combustion of acetylene is incomplete. As a result, a greenish acetylene feather between the inert cone and the outer envelope characterizes a reducing flame.

 C. Oxidizing Flame When excess oxygen is used, the flame becomes oxidizing because of the presence of unconsumed oxygen. A short white inner cone characterizes an oxidizing flame .This flame is preferred when welding brass because copper oxide covers the weld pool and thus prevents zinc from evaporating from the weld pool.

Arc welding
Arc welding (AW).Arc welding refers to a group of welding processes in which heating of the metals is accomplished by an electric arc, Some arc welding operations also apply pressure during the process and most utilize a filler metal.

ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT

Facilitator Equipment Welding (a) Power source (welding machine) (b) Electrode holder (c) Work table (d) Cables (for connection) (e) Finishing devices like chipping, hammer, wire brush, etc.

Consumable Equipment (a) Electrode (b) Flux (c) Workpiece (d) Filler metal

Protecting Equipment (a) Welding shields (b) Goggles (c) Screens (d) Gloves (e) Apron

Power Source
Both AC (Alternative Current) and DC (Direct Current) can be used for welding. AC machines are recommended for ferrous metal and DC machines are recommended for other metals for better result. Main constituent of welding machine is transformer which convert the supply to low voltage and high current. For AC welding power is required at 80 to 110 volt and 50 to 80 ampere. In case of DC welding power is required at 8 to 25 volts and 50 ampere. Polarity is also are significant factor. Two types of polarities are possible in case of DC welding.

 Two types of polarities are possible in case of DC welding. Straight Polarity Electrode is made negative pole and work piece is made positive pole. It is also called as electrode negative. Reversed Polarity Electrode is made positive pole and workpiece is made negative pole. It is called electrode positive too.

Welding Electrodes
These are also called welding rods. Two types of welding electrodes are generally used. Consumable electrodes and non-consumable electrodes. Consumable electrodes are the source of filler metal in case of arc welding.

 Consumable electrodes can further be classified into two categories coated and bare electrodes. Bare electrodes are simple rods made of filler metal with no coating over them. In case of bare electrode flux is required additionally. These electrodes are rarely used. Bare nonconsumable electrodes are used in case of gas shielded welding processes (MIG and UIG).

Coated Consumable Electrodes

These are the most popular arc welding electrodes. No additional filler metal and flux are required with them. In general these electrodes have core of mild steel and coating over them of flux material. Coating on the electrode performs many functions. It develops a reducing atmosphere and prevents oxidation, forms separable slag from metal impurities, establishes ac providing necessary alloying elements to the weld pool.

 The common ingredients act as flux which help in slag formation are asbestos, mica, silica, fluorspar, stealite, titanium dioxide, iron oxide, metal carbonates, etc. Ingredients used to produce reducing atmosphere are cellulose, dalomine, wood flour, starch. Iron powder provides higher deposition rate. Manganese oxide and potassium silicate and titanate are the alloying elements and stabilizers.

Non-consumable Electrodes
They are made of tungsten or carbon. These do not melt in the process of welding and so called non-consumable electrodes. Their depletion rate is very low. In case of non-consumable electrodes metal and flux is supplied additionally. Generally non-consumable electrodes are used in MIG and TIG welding processes.

Electrode Classification and Coding

According to ISI coding system an electrode is specified six digits with a prefix letter M which is indicative of its suitability for metal arc welding. Explanation of six digits is given below. First Digit First digit stands for particular type of coating on the electrode. This digit can be any from 1 to 8. Second Digit It can be any from 1 to 6. Each digit is an indicative of a particular position of welding by the respective electrode.

 Third Digit This includes digit 0 to 7. Each digit representing a particular current condition corresponding to an electrode. Fourth Digit Any digit out of 1 to 8 is used for this purpose. Electrode of a particular number indicates minimum tensile strength of the weldment made by the electrode.

 Fifth Digit It indicates the percentage elongation of deposited weldment in tensile testing. Different percentages are represented by number 1 to 5. Sixth Digit It signified the minimum impact strength of the weldment. Different strength values are categorized in five categories ranging from 1 to 5.

2- Electric Arc welding

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) Gastungsten arc welding (GTAW) Plasma arc welding (PAW) Gasmetal arc welding (GMAW) Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) Submerged arc welding (SAW) Electroslag welding (ESW)

MMAW (Manual Metal Arc welding) or SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding)
An arc welding process in witch coalescence of metals is produced by heat; The heat comes from an electric arc that is maintained between the tip of a covered electrode and the surface of the base metal in the joint being welded; Always done with a consumable electrode with solid metal sheath and coated in flux to lay the weld; Striking arc by short cutting; Can be done inside or at open air;

 The consumable electrode provides: 1) Gas protection to shield the arc and prevent atmospheric contamination of the molten filler metal; 2) Adding elements to change the mechanical properties and prevents excessive grain growth in the welded metal; 3) Enhance the mechanical properties and surface cleanliness of the weld metal;

 As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode evaporates giving off vapours a layer of slag. The flux provides molten slag witch covers the filler metal as it travels from the electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld pool is formed, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from atmospheric contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it should be chipped away to reveal the finished weld.

During welding the current remains constant, even if the arc distance and voltage change. DCEN (Direct Current Electrode Negative): Causes heat to build up in the electrode, increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the depth of the weld; DCEP (Direct Current Electrode Positive): Increases the weld penetration; AC (Alternating Current): The resulting heat distribution provides a balance between the melting rate and penetration;

Applications:
Maintenance and repair industries; Naval Industry; Pipelines; Offshore platforms; Construction of steel structures;
Weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steels, cast iron, aluminum, nickel and cooper alloys;

 Advantages: Equipment cheap, versatile, simple and portable; Welds any position; Disadvantages: Smokes causes health problem Electrode type choice is crucial; Need to remove slag immediately due inclusions problems; Quality depends welder skill.

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding uses an arc between a continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode and the weld pool. Shielding is provided by an externally supplied shielding gas. This process is also known as MIG welding or MAG welding. MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding means the use of an inert (i.e. non active) gas. MAG (Metal Active Gas) welding requires the use of an active gas (i.e. carbon dioxide and oxygen). CO2 is a more commonly used shortening of MAG welding gas.

 The process consists of a DC arc burning between a thin bare metal wire electrode and the workpiece. The arc and weld area are enveloped in a protective gas shield. The wire electrode is fed from a spool, through a welding torch which is connected to the positive terminal into the weld zone. MIG/MAG welding is the most widely used process in the world today. It is a versatile method which offers a lot of advantages. The technique is easy to use and there is no need for slagcleaning. Another advantage is the extremely high productivity that MIG/MAG welding makes possible.

 MIG/MAG welding is used on all thicknesses of steels, aluminium, nickel, stainless steels etc. The MAG process is suitable both for steel and unalloyed, low-alloy and high-alloy based materials. The MIG process, on the other hand, is used for welding aluminium and copper materials.

Resistance welding
Resistance welding is one of the oldest of the electric welding processes in use by industry today. The weld is made by a combination of heat, pressure, and time. As the name resistance welding implies, it is the resistance of the material to be welded to current flow that causes a localized heating in the part. The pressure exerted by the tongs and electrode tips, through which the current flows, holds the parts to be welded in intimate contact before, during,

 and after the welding current time cycle. The required amount of time current flows in the joint is determined by material thickness and type, the amount of current flowing, and the crosssectional area of the welding tip contact surfaces.

Principle
Resistance welding is accomplished when current is caused to flow through electrode tips and the separate pieces of metal to be joined. The resistance of the base metal to electrical current flow causes localized heating in the joint, and the weld is made.

 The basic formula for heatgeneration may be stated: H = I2R H = Heat I2 = Welding Current Squared R = Resistance

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc is directed at weld area Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas (argon) into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C (50,000F), due to constriction of arc, producing a plasma jet of small diameter and very high energy density

Advantages and Disadvantages of PAW

Advantages: Good arc stability and excellent weld quality Better penetration control than other AW processes High travel speeds Can be used to weld almost any metals Disadvantages: High equipment cost Larger torch size than other AW processes
Tends to restrict access in some joints

Other Fusion Welding Processes

Processes include:
Electron beam welding Laser beam welding Electroslag welding Thermit welding

Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

Fusion welding process in which heat for welding is provided by a highly-focused, high-intensity stream of electrons striking work surface Electron beam gun operates at:
High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to accelerate electrons

Beam currents are low (measured in milliamps)

Electron beam welding(EBW)is a fusion welding process in which a beam of high-velocity electrons is applied to the materials being joined. The work pieces meltas the kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into heat upon impact.

 The electron beam (eb) welding process is used in a variety of industries. Applications range from fully automated, high productivity and low cost automotive in-line part production to single part batch processes in the high-cost aircraft engine industry at the other end of the industrial spectrum.

ADVANTAGES
High power density to produce a full penetration keyhole even in thick specimens. Produce a single pass welding at a high welding speed. Very narrow heat affected zone (HAZ) and little distortion due to lower heat input per unit length than in arc welding. Reactive and refractory metals can be welded in vacuum (no contamination). Very rapid cooling can prevent coarse, brittle inter metallic compounds. Dissimilar metals can be welded.

EBW Limitations
High equipment cost Work chamber size constraints Time delay when welding in vacuum High weld preparation costs X-rays produced during welding Rapid solidification rates can cause

cracking in some materials

Laser beam welding (LBW)

It is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces of metal through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates. The process is frequently used in high volume applications, such as in the automotive industry.

 High-power CO2 lasers 20-20,000 watts (220 kW) have been used for many years for welding car bodies, transmission components, tailored blanks, heat exchangers and pipes. Solid-state lasers (e.g., diode-pumped Nd:YAG, disc and fiber lasers) have been recently scaled up in power and add the benefit of beam delivery via optical fibers. These are easily manipulated by robots, allowing a number of 3D applications (e.g., laser cutting and welding of car bodies).

Laser Welding - Process Description

With high-power laser welding, laser energy melts and evaporates the metal. The pressure of the vapour displaces the molten metal so that a cavity, known as a keyhole, is formed. The keyhole supports the transfer of the laser energy into the metal and guides the laser beam deep into the material. In this way, keyhole welding allows for very deep and narrow welds and is therefore also called deep penetration welding.

Welding gas
Welding gas plays an important role in laser welding and fulfils several tasks: Shielding of the weld pool and the HAZ Protection of the optics against fumes and spatter Root protection Plasma control during CO2 laser welding

 The weld plasma is a cloud of ionized metal vapour and gases that can form above the keyhole. This cloud affects laser radiation and has the potential to interrupt the welding process. To control this plasma, helium (which has a high ionization potential) can be used as a shielding gas.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

PAW is a variation of Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). The process uses a restricted arc that is squeezed through a copper nozzle to create a longer, narrower and more focused arc than is obtained with GTAW.

 In addition to raising arc temperature, the hottest area of the plasma is extended outside of the nozzle down toward the work surface. The overall result is a more concentrated heat source at a higher temperature that greatly increases the heat transfer efficiency, allowing faster travel speeds. When used manually, a high level of operator skill is required.

Advantages
Produce deep and narrow welds at high welding speeds. Narrow heat-affected zone. Little distortion. Can be used for welding dissimilar metals in varying sizes.

Solid-State Welding
Friction stir welding (FSW) is a recently developed solid-state welding process that utilizes a cylindrical, shouldered tool that is mounted in a machine having the appearance of a vertical mill. The tool is rotated at a high speed and pressed into the joint (Fig. 13.3.12). Friction causes the material to heat and soften, but not melt. The plasticized material is moved from the leading edge of the tool to the trailing edge, leaving behind a solid-state bond. The low temperatures involved make FSW ideal for many aluminum alloys where arc welding processes result in softened regions adjacent to the weld.

Thermit Welding (TW) Welding

Thermit is a trade name for thermite. A mixture of Aluminium powder and iron oxide that produces an exothermic reaction when ignited. In case of thermit welding heat is produced by superheated molten metal form the chemical reaction of thermit. Filler metal is obtained from liquid (molten) metal.

 Heat is generated when finely mixed powders of aluminium and iron oxide in the ratio of 1 : 3 is ignited to a temperature of around 1300oC. Following reaction takes place : 8AL + 3F3 O 9Fe + 4Al O (slag) + heat Thermit welding has applications in joining of rail road rails, repair of cracks in castings and forgings in ship building industries.

WELDING DEFECTS
Residual Stresses and Warpage Rapid heating and then uncontrolled cooling result in uneven expansion and contraction in the work piece and weldment. This causes development of residual stresses in the weldment. Distortion and warpage may also be there. Sometimes wrong selection of filler metal and welding technique may also be the cause of residual stress and warpage.

 Cracks This is a serious welding defect appears as fracture type interruptions in the weld. Crack works as a point of stress concentration so reduce the strength of the joint. Cavities or Porosity Porosity consists of small voids in weld metal formed by gases entrapped during solidification. Shape of the voids may be spherical holes or elongated holes. There can be another type of voids named as shrinkage voids formed due to shrinkage of metal during solidification.

 Solid Inclusions This is the entrapped non-metallic solid material. It may be the inclusion of slag generated in a welding process. Incomplete Fusion It is also called lack of fusion. It is a weld bead in which fusion has not occurred throughout the entire cross-section of the joint. In other words it is a lack of penetration. That is molten metal has not penetrated upto root of the joint.