a magnetic reversal time scale exists

absolute dating by correlation with on-land stratigraphic sections

to determine direction, need to know about motion of plates on a sphere Euler pole: motion of a continent (or plate) on Earth can be described by an angular rotation about a pole, or axis, of rotation

plate 2

plate 1 linear velocity changes as function of distance from pole

if the motion of the plate or continent is relative to another plate or continent..relative plate motion

plate 1 is fixed plate 2 moves away

spreading

plate 2 is fixed plate 1 moves toward 2

subduction

note in both examples. transform faults parallel plate rotation

rotation is direction

Global Positioning System (GPS) geodesy

same idea as VLBI, but use GPS constellation as external reference frame

can determine motions of specific spots on Earths surface to within a few millimeters per year (good enough for plate motion) VLBI and GPS yield instantaneous rates (on order years) hot spots and seafloor magnetic anomalies are on order 106 years. comparisons show rates agree for the two time scales

GPS plate motions

Triple junction: point where three plates meet can have many kinds e.g. ridge-ridge-ridge; ridge-trenchtransform migration of triple junction along boundary can change the boundary

subduction along western North America spreading offshore

Afar triple junction ridge encounters subduction zone two triple junctions form that are migrating in opposite directions example:

plate 1

plate 2

plate boundary changes to transcurrent San Andreas fault

plate 3
ridge-ridge-ridge

motion of two of the three plates constrains third

all boundaries strike-slip

all boundaries subduction

closure relationship (vector addition): relative motion A = relative motion B + relative motion C

B A
motion of B relative to A for left example above

Extensional tectonics motions of plates relative to each other produces 3 different types of boundaries: divergent, convergent, transform

divergent boundaries important for rifting of Pangaea (stretching and thinning) to form mid-Atlantic Ridge and Atlantic Ocean

225 Ma years ago to present day

Rifting: process by which continental lithosphere stretches active rifts: where extensional deformation currently occurscharacterized by faulting; seismicity; eruptions inactive rifts: where extensional deformation has stopped;characterized by normal faults; redbeds; conglomerates; evaporites; volcanics rifting can be successful or unsuccessful successful rifts occur when a thinning continent separates into two pieces and a new oceanic spreading ridge forms (typically 20-60 million years between start of rifting and beginning of seafloor spreading) e.g. breakup of Pangaea ~225 million years ago to form Atlantic

unsuccessful rifts develop when rifting stops before continental separationunsuccessful rifts that cut into continental marginare aulacogens

map view of rift system (ridge-ridge-ridge triple junction) trying to form in continental crust

oceanic crust

two rifts are successful and form two spreading ridges; third is unsuccessful and develops aulocogen

from: Kearey and Vine, 1996

evolution of rifts (top two rows): left: successful; spreading center (Red Sea) right: unsuccessful; aulocogen

bottom three rows: evolution through Wilson cycle examples: left: Appalachians right: Reelfoot Rift (Mississippi Embayment)

from: Kearey and Vine, 1996

Rifting to drifting lithosphere stretches prior to onset of seafloor spreading

factor of 2-4 stretching (elongation) lithosphere 2-4x original width and one-half to one-quarter original thickness amount of stretching depends on strength of lithosphere and syn-rift heat flow eventually rift-related faulting stops; lithosphere subsides; inactive rift buried by marine sediments; becomes passive margin

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

cross-sectional structure of rifts geometry of a rift in intermediate stage of development e.g. Basin and Range; East African rift (active); North Sea rift (inactive)

pre 1970s idea

modern thoughts

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

in (b), ranges are unburied tips of tilted hanging wall blocks and basins are half-grabens; note asymmetry of (b) relative to (a)

Rifts have both planar and listric normal faults

extension in hanging wall

movement on listric faults causes progressive tilting during regional extension: rotational normal faults

along listric faults: flats and ramps; displacements create rollovers; antithetic and synthetic faults in hanging wall (extension); extensional duplexes

both from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

what do rifts look like at greater depths? two end-member models pure-shear: detachment at brittle-plastic transition; deformation by ductile strain below detachment

simple shear: basal detachment cuts to deep lithosphere and is boundary between two pieces of lithosphere that separate (explains asymmetry)

combination
from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

end-member models in 3D

pure shear

simple shear

from: Moores and Twiss, 1995

not all rifts look the same two examples: Viking graben (North Sea rift..Mesozoic-Early Cenozoic)

Gulf of Suez (Red SeaCenozoic)

both from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

well-known example: Basin and Range extensional province

western North America tectonic provinces

from: Moores and Twiss, 1995

simple shear model of rifts provides possible explanation for metamorphic core complexes (zones of high extension)

first recognized in belt that rims eastern edge of Basin and Range; composed of: hanging wall of nonmylonitized rocks that are moved along rotational normal faults; zone of chloritic fault breccia zone of mylonite (mylonitic carapace) fabric intensity diminishes downward; regional arching of foliation interior typically is Cenozoic or Mesozoic granite depth

hanging wall strata at high angles to mylonite/breccia zone

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

interpretation: exposure of regional detachment at base of normal fault system in a rift (mylonite is footwall of crustal-scale shear zone)

normal faulting above detachment in rift developing by simple shear

doming from isostatic uplift in response to unloading

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak

Formation of rift systems

extension along continent does not begin at same time everywhere; starts as series of unconnected normal faults that grow over time and link to form continuous extension zone; extension zone then propagates along strikefault segments may not all connect where they interact are accommodation zonescomplex regions of strike-, dip- and oblique-slip along transfer faults (where slip is transf e.g. strike-slip fault may connect two normal faults

d u strike-slip transfer faults normal fault map view u d

normal fault
accommodation zone

Rift evolution

initial rifting

rift-drift

fault reorganization
from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

new ocean basin

rifting also leads to predictable sedimentary rock assemblages: early: nonmarine clastic rocks (alluvial fan/lacustrine deposits) middle: shallow sea deposits (evaporites); late: open marine strata (carbonates)

younging

early late

middle

middle

early
late

sedimentary section

lithospheric stretching also leads to magmatic underplating and intrusion of basaltic sills and dikes

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak

active rift topography two topographic profiles below:

Basin and Range

axis Red Sea

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak

note: rift axis is low area relative to rift margin top: rift above sea level (early-intermediate stage) bottom: rift below sea level (late stage) why are rifts high? lithospheric thinning brings warmer mantle shallower; high heat flow lowers density of crust (floats higher) extensional faulting causes unroofing and unloading

ocean ridges: where new oceanic lithosphere is created lithosphere moves away from crest of ridge at ridge axis, extensional tectonics dominates seafloor spreading

schematic section through oceanic crust and upper mantle at spreading ridge ophiolites (earlier lecture)

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

magnetism recorded on ocean floor from seafloor spreading can derive rate (fast vs. slow)

map of ridge system

from: Kearey and Vine, 1996

Seafloor spreading leads to transform faults what are transform faults (strike-slip displacement)? offsets of the spreading ridgeaccommodation zones

displacement across transforms dictated by seafloor spreading

southwest Indian Ridge

note: transform fault and deformation in seafloor

relationship of magma chamber to structures at spreading ridge

from: McDonald and Fox, 1990

Compressional tectonics
different types of structures are associated with each boundary type: divergent/rifting: extensional (normal faulting) convergent/collisional: compressional (thrust faulting) transform/transcurrent: shear-dominated (strike-slip faulting)

contractional: convergent margin subduction zone reverse faulting plates move together

extensional: divergent margin spreading ridge normal faulting plates move apart

we examined continental rifting, drifting, and seafloor spreading during discussion of extensional tectonics oceanic lithosphere at spreading ridge is warm and buoyant; reason why ridges are elevated as new lithosphere moves away from ridge axis: it cools, mantle portion thickens, and density increaseslithospheres becomes negatively buoy leads to subduction how subduction starts is not clearmay be response to compression across weakness such as transform fault or contact between oceanic and continental crust compression causes thrusting of more buoyant lithosphere over less buoyant and subduction of less buoyant into asthenosphere and convergent margin develops subduction zone (convergent margin) oceanic lithosphere of downgoing slab (or plate) descends below lithosphere (oceanic or continental) of overriding plate

types of subduction zones: continental arc

island arc

Lesser Antilles, Scotia arc, Aleutians Pacific Northwest (Cascadia); South America (Andes)

India-Asia (Himalayas)

convergent margins are sites of contractional tectonics

ocean/continent Peru-Chile

ocean/ocean Japan

continent/continent Himalayas

idealized cross-section through convergent margin

trench: deep, locally sediment-filled trough at boundary of two plates accretionary wedge (prism): sediments scraped off downgoing slab forearc basin: between accretionary prism and volcanic arc volcanic arc: chain of volcanoes forearc: between volcanic arc and trench backarc: behind volcanic arc

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

most subduction zones are in the Ring of Fire (so-called because of volcanism) of the Pacific

to look more closely at subduction, we will examine each feature downgoing slab:

first clue occurs ~250 km outboard (toward middle of downgoing plate) of trench lithosphere rises and bends to form arch called outer swell or peripheral bulge forms due to downward bending of lithosphere below trench (a)

duplicate by bending sheet of stiff material over edge of table (b)

upper surface of lithosphere stretches to accommodate bending; cut by trench parallel normal faults

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

seismicity along subduction zones: earthquakes are shallow, intermediate, and deep but have systematic location related to subducting slab

note: shallow adjacent to trench and deep farthest away

location of downgoing slab as it dives into mantle is defined by seismicityearthquakes occur along an inclined belt: the Wadati-Benioff zone reaches maximum depth of ~670 km

deep

intermediate

shallow

epicenters: location of earthquake rupture projected to surface; dip of slab leads to observed seismicity patterns: deeper farther from trench

relationship of seismicity to trench: Wadati-Benioff zone

Japan

seismicity of subduction zones

Wadati-Benioff zones: different dips in different locations

where slab bends: earthquakes related to normal faults moderate depths: earthquakes related to thrusting along plate interface

these most destructive at greater depth: earthquakes related to normal faulting again; slab may be stretched
from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

depth to which slab extends is controversial

tomography (3D seismic):

blue is fast interpreted as slab

note continuity of blue slab to depths on order of 670 km slab is cold and thus can have earthquakes at greater depths

let us examine the morphology of subduction zones:

3D bathymetry: perspectives of western Pacific (left) and equatorial Atlantic (right) trenches: deepest parts of oceans (Mariana ~12 km deep) note deep trenches in left image and part of right image;trench missing along southern Lesser Antilleswhy? depth of trench reflects: age of downgoing slab sediment supply into trench

sediments derived from either nearby continents or volcanic arc may fill trenchescalled trench fill: ,typically turbidites that move into trenc submarine canyons these sediments eventually are incorporated intoaccretionary wedge (prism) where they become deformed

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

Accretionary wedge (prism) most structurally complex part of subduction zone composed of sediment and rock scraped off downgoing slab and trench-fill internal structure is heterogeneous, reflecting rock types most places have coherent sequence of folded and faulted rock some places have chaotic mixtures of different rock types in fine-grained matrixmlange

Accretionary prism processes

from: Moores and Twiss, 1995

sediment initially deformed at outer deformation front; accrete as distinct packages bound by thrust faults; accretion resembles process of snow piling up in front of snow plow

when wedge reaches substantial thickness, upper part may collapse along normal faults

in active wedges, balance maintained between new material added by accretion shortening within wedge extension by normal faulting results in maintenance of critical taper angle between surface of wedge and surface of downgoing slab

both from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

Forearc basin: top of wedge defined by abrupt decrease in slopetrench-slope breakmany margins have broad shallow basin on arc side of wedgeforearc basin forearc basin

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

volcanic arc: chain of volcanoes that forms at Earths surface ~ 100-150 km above surface of subducted oceanic lithosphere

Volcanic arc partial melting occurslikely in response to release of volatiles (H2O; CO2) from downgoing slab (sediments) as it is heated; resultant magma rises to surface to form volcanoes

ocean-ocean subductionisland arcs ..volcanoes form islands; mafic to intermediate rocks

ocean-continent subduction continental arcs volcanoes as mountain belt; intermediate to felsic rocks

if we put it all together

volcanic arcs always ~ 100-150 km above top of downgoing slab,but, arc-trench gap (distance between arc and trench) not always same dips of subducting slabs vary from near 0 to near 90 arc-trench gap volcano

100-150 km

subducting slab

constant dip

undulating slab surface

both from: Moores and Twiss, 1995

faulted slab

shallow slab

Backarc region:

area on opposite side of arc from forearc basin

structural character of backarcs is highly variablefive types: extensional contractional stable strike-slip trapped ocean lithosphere

extensional backarc: active rifting and/or seafloor spreading

backarc spreading not well organized; pieces of arcs may be rifted apartremnant arcs

example: Mariana arc (Philippine Sea backarc)

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

Contractional backarc: backarc basin does not form fold and thrust belt generated

example: Andes; Mesozoic Sevier

stable backarcs: no motion is occurring strike-slip backarcs: strike-slip deformation

example: Japan Sea backarc

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

trapped ocean lithosphere: convergent margin develops within oceanic plate example of Bering Seaunderlain by Mesozoic age seafloor trapped when Aleutian volcanic arc formed

difference in age of trapped ocean fragment from arc

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

why such differences in behavior in subduction zones? examine relative motions of backarc and volcanic arc as subduction continues, location of bend in downgoing slab rolls back (toward trench) impossible for open space to form so arc moves with rollback if overriding plate is stationary or moves away from arc extension occurs (rifting) if overriding plate moves in direction of rollback at same velocitystable backarc if overriding plate moves in direction of rollback but at faster velocity contractional backarc

two end-member types of convergent boundaries coupled subduction: balance between downgoing plate velocity, rollback velocity, and overriding plate velocity yields condition that entire subduction system is in compressioncoupled vs. uncoupled subduction from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997 large shear stresses across plate interface efficient offscraping, contractional backarc uncoupled subduction: balance between downgoing plate velocity, rollback velocity, and overriding plate velocity yields condition that entire subduction system is in tension low shear stresses across plate interface little offscraping, extensional backarc

why do arcs curve? answer not clear3 possible ideas: ping-pong ball, a: curves reflect natural shape of intersection line where surface of sphere is indented and pushed inward (dimple tectonics seamounts, b: curves reflect indentation of originally straight arc by subduction of chains of seamounts, e.g. Emperor seamounts strike-slip faulting, c: strike-slip faulting and drag at either end of arc causes curvature

if we step back and take a wider view

two things to note: first: in backarc we have a fold-thrust belt. a zone of folds and thrusts that arises from shortening second: descending slab is attached to a passive margin

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

what happens as passive margin approaches subduction zone?

continents collide and subduction stops (continents too light; also island arcs; some young ridges)

development of fold and thrust belts

eventually subduction stops

stages of collisional tectonics always preceded by convergent tectonics

pre-collision

passive margin strata shorten and deform basin telescopes

abortive subduction

while bouyant block remains connected to subducting slab, collision continues

when relative motions cease, two plates become one surface that marks boundary between two plates is suture

suture formation
from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

suture zone often contains ophiolites (oceanic crust)

some important terms

foreland: ahead of the deformation foreland fold and thrust belt (fold-thrust belt): deformation belt in foreland characterized by folds and thrusts; structures verge toward foreland (more later) hinterland: toward interior of deformation away from foreland; characterized by metamorphic rocks

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

nature of collision depends on relative motion of colliding pieces rate of collision whether colliding pieces are bordered by continental or oceanic lithosphere physical chacteristics of colliding piecesage, temperature, size, shape, composition e.g. if old (cold) craton collides with young (warm) orogenic belt craton will indent into softer orogenic belt craton remains relatively undeformed

if pieces collide obliquely

collision is time transgressive

suture propagates southward (in this case) with collision resembles a zipper closing

from: van der Pluijm and Marshak, 1997

another key process that arises from convergence and collision.accretion tectonics classic example is the North American cordillera history of terrane accretionterrane is a geologic block bounded by faults terranes can be derived locallypieces separated from nearby continent or island arc, moved, and accreted (stuck) back terranes can come from somewhere else and be swept into convergent margin and dock against continent these are exotic terranes terranes whose origin is unclear, but likely are not locally derived are suspect terranes

ocean basin

locally derived exotic terrane use field relations, structural history, paleomag, fauna to decide

suspect terrane

one other important conceptwe have treated subduction as normal i.e. motion of downgoing plate perpendicular to trench but, most subduction is obliquesometimes the components of the velocity arepartitioned into arc normal component arc-parallel component

arc parallel component may be accommodated along arc where crust is hotter and weaker throughgoing strike-slip fault forms isolating a forearc sliver that moves along boundary

from: Moores and Twiss, 1995

INVERSION TECTONICS

BOIXOLS, PYRENEES

VALHALL FIELD NORWEGIAN CENTRAL GRABEN

SALT TECTONICS

Royal Holloway University of London

Supra-Salt - Base Upper Jurassic

SHEARWATER AREA CENTRAL GRABEN UK North Sea

Sub-Salt - Top Rotliegend

DEFORMATION RIG CONFIGURATION

Model 1 - Medium Pre-Kinematic Overburden

2 cm Polymer, 2 cm Pre-Kinematic Thickness 1.5 cm Base-Level Rise

Model 1 - Medium Pre-Kinematic Overburden

2 cm Polymer, 2 cm Pre-Kinematic Thickness 1.5 cm Base-Level Rise

Model 1 - Medium Pre-Kinematic Overburden

2 cm Polymer, 2 cm Pre-Kinematic Thickness 1.5 cm Base-Level Rise

Model 1 - 3D RECONSTRUCTION

Model 2 - Thin Pre-Kinematic Overburden

2 cm Polymer Thickness 1.2 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness 2 cm Base Level Rise

Model 2 - Thin Pre-Kinematic Overburden

2 cm Polymer Thickness 1.2 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness 2 cm Base Level Rise

Model 2 - Thin Pre-Kinematic Overburden

2 cm Polymer Thickness 1.2 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness 2 cm Base Level Rise

Model 2 - 3D RECONSTRUCTION

Model 3 - Thin Pre-Kinematic Overburden + Inversion

2 cm Polymer Thickness 1.2 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness Major Aggradation/Base Level Rise

Model 3 - Thin Pre-Kinematic Overburden + Inversion

2 cm Polymer Thickness 1.2 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness Major Aggradation/Base Level Rise

Model 3 - Thin Pre-Kinematic Overburden + Inversion

2 cm Polymer Thickness 1.2 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness Major Aggradation/Base Level Rise

Model 3 - Thin Pre-Kinematic Overburden + Inversion

2 cm Polymer Thickness 1.2 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness Major Aggradation/Base Level Rise 15% Inversion

Model 3 - 3D RECONSTRUCTION

Model 4 - Thick Pre-Kinematic Overburden + Inversion

2-3.5 cm Polymer Thickness 2.7 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness Major Aggradation/Base Level Rise

Model 4 - Thick Pre-Kinematic Overburden + Inversion

2-3.5 cm Polymer Thickness 2.7 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness Major Aggradation/Base Level Rise

Model 4 - Thick Pre-Kinematic Overburden + Inversion

2-3.5 cm Polymer Thickness 2.7 cm Initial Pre-Kinematic Thickness Major Aggradation/Base Level Rise 22% Inversion

Model 4 (SH-24) SERIAL SECTIONS

Diapir localizes reverse faulting

Section 9

Entrained polymer along reactivated basin-margin fault

Section 8

Inversion structures nucleate from pre-existing footwall listric fault system

Section 7

FLAP STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH DIAPIRS

(a ) (b)

Double Flaps

Double Flaps

(c )

Double Flaps

(d)

Single Flap

(after Schultz-Ela et al., 1994)

FLAP STRUCTURE EVOLUTION

Increasing Extension

FLAP STRUCTURE

Stairstep faulting above buried wall

DIAPIRISM MODES
REACTIVE
Extension creates room

Regional extension Flexure

Regional

Shallow thickening Fan of normal faults Deep thinning Monocline or thrust fault Radial or subparallel faults Flap
Regional

ACTIVE
Diapir creates room

Thinning, arching

PASSIVE
No room problem

Contact drag

Regional

Extrusive flange Subtle thickness changes

(after Jackson et al., 1994)

DIAPIR PATTERNS - MODEL 3

Left Margin

Right Margin

DIAPIR GEOMETRIES - MODEL 3

DIAPIR GEOMETRIES - MODEL 3

Syn-Inversion

TSE = Top Syn-Extension Regional TSR = Top Salt Regional SK = Syn-Kinematic Infill Marker SK = Syn-Kinematic Infill Marker

DIAPIR GEOMETRIES - BREACHED 3-WAY FLAP STRUCTURE 10% INVERSION

Extrusive Flange Syn-Inversion Top Syn-Extension Flaps

Footwall

Top Syn-Extension

Footwall

SHEARWATER FLAP STRUCTURE

Salt

Main Block

A04

A06

A04

A06

Shearwater Main Block

16900

16670

16900 17400

16670

SHEARWATER - TIMESLICE

Salt

SHEARWATER TRIASSIC: Interpreted Top Joanne Surface & Salt Outline

DIAPIR EVOLUTION PATHS

Turtle Back Example from GOM

Salt Structure, North Sea

Salt Structure, North Sea

Salt Pillow, North Sea

TWT (sec) 1

2 Km

The Mahogany Salt Sill, GOM

The Mahogany Salt Sill, GOM

Counter-Regional Listric Fault, GOM

Salt Diapir, GOM

Structural Styles & Systems

Structural Styles & Habitats

Structural Styles Habitats

Schematic diagrams of hydrocarbon traps (black areas) most commonly associated with structural styles of sedimentary basins. Purely stratigraphic type traps and traps associated with basement thrusts are omitted. Salt related closures modified after Halbouty (1967), BC: Basement complex, T: displacement toward viewer, A: away from viewer.

Structural Styles Habitats

Structural Styles Habitats

Structural Styles Habitats

Models of Intracontinental Extension

Seismic Example 1

Seismic Example 1

GROWTH FAULT
As the markers are clearly correlatable on either side of the fault the increasing throw with depth is quite obvious.

On this old unmigrated section the position of the fault can be traced by marking the tops of the diffraction curves emanating from the reflector terminations.

Seismic Example 2

Seismic Example 2
NORMAL FAULT

Normal fault forming a basin edge. The envelope of the diffraction curves (dashed line) represents the unimigrated position of the fault. The true position is through the apexes of the diffraction curves (solid line). Many minor compaction faults occur in the horizontally stratified overburden.

Seismic Example 3

Seismic Example 3
LISTRIC GROWTH FAULT
The principal characteristics of this type of fault can be clearly seen: 1. The concave-upwards curvature of the fault plane. 2. The increase in throw with depth. 3. The rollover structure on the downthrown side, dipping towards the fault plane with thickening intervals. The faulting is probably a direct consequence of lateral flow of salt to the right, the salt layer being located within the lowest interval marked.

Seismic Example 4

Seismic Example 4
LISTRIC NORMALGROWTH FAULT At the top of the interpreted part of the section a compressional deformation pattern can be seen. This is due to rotation of the hanging wall block against the foot wall block causing a volume problem.

Seismic Example 5

Seismic Example 5

LISTRIC NORMAL GROWTH FAULT

A listric normal growth fault with an anomalous surface. Slip of the hanging wall block will cause a local compression resulting in bending or reverse faulting.

Seismic Example 6

Seismic Example 6

NORMAL FAULT

An example of a normal fault, which is not planar. Such an irregularity in the fault plane may be due to compaction in the foot-wall block, causing a compressional feature in the hanging-wall block

Seismic Example 7

Seismic Example 7

NORMAL GROWTH FAULT

A roll-over structure caused by salt withdrawl. Note the major growth fault (unmigrated) bounding the structure and the crestal collapse features which are also characteristic for deltaic structures. The salt has flowed into a pillow and has probably been partly dissolved and moved along the fault plane.

Seismic Example 8

Seismic Example 8

Listric faults above a normally faulted blocks

Listric faults above a normally block-faulted basement. Salt directly overlying the basement causes the slip. Plain spastic reconstruction may show that the extension of the overburden does not match the extension of the basement. It is possible that the listric faults are formed in response to the normal faulting in the basement.

Seismic Example 9

Seismic Example 9

In many cases of step or imbricate faulting of a repetitive nature, the fault planes show a listric curvature which becomes asymptotic to some deeper detachment surface. In other cases, however, as in this example, the fault zones are planar. In both types of faulting, there is a room problem, the solution to which will depend on the exact lithostratigraphic and tectonic environment.

Seismic Example 10

Seismic Example 10
NORMAL FAULT

An example showing what may happen when a normal fault hading in one direction intersects an earlier normal fault hading in the opposite direction. An intersecting point to note how the two main fault segments A and B in depth show steep, shallow and again steep trajectories in passing through the same zones of lithology.

Seismic Example 11

Seismic Example 11

ROTATED FAULT BLOCKS

This example shows a large rotated fault block of Paleozoic rocks separating a deeper basin to the north from a trough to the south. The major fault forming the northern edge of the block has a throw of at least 4000 m into the basin. The flanks of the structure are onlapped by Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments and the block is comprehensively faulted by what seems to be a series of down-to basin step sediments in such situations should have high exploration potential. There have already been discoveries in the area.

Types of Folds in Thrust Belts

Seismic Example 1

Seismic Example 1

REVERSE FAULT Tow reverse faults, probably both splaying from the same thrust plane. The dipping horizons below the angular unconformity converge towards the right. There is a tendency for intervals to become thinner with increasing depth on a time section, as interval velocities increase with depth due to compaction. However, in this case the convergence is large enough to assume that tectonic inversion has occurred.

Seismic Example 2

Seismic Example 2

LOW ANGLE REVERSE FAULT

Looking at the unmigrated section (top) one is tempted to draw a normal fault assuming that the right half of the anticlinal feature merely consists of diffraction curves. However, the configuration of the sediments on the right hand side above the fault would plead against a normal fault. The migrated time section nicely illustrates a low angle reverse fault, although the exact position of the thrust plane cannot be established. Comparing the migrated with unmigrated sections note the considerable horizontal displacement caused by migration, especially the shift in the position of the backthrust.

Seismic Example 3

Seismic Example 3

High Angle Reverse Fault

Note the expression of channeling at approx. 1.7 seconds. The fault has still been active after the erosion, as can be inferred from the onlaps.

Seismic Example 4

Seismic Example 4
Low Angle Reverse Fault

Section showing a high angle reverse fault with back thrust. The sag (Pulldown) in the shadow zone below the fold is most likely a distortion due to ray bending across the fault. Only modeling can give the answer.

Seismic Example 5

Seismic Example 5

Thrust Fault

A sequence of thrusts. Thrusting occurs usually on a decollement plane, which is difficult to trace on this section. Normally it follows incompetent formations (shales or evaporites). Note the steep reverse faults and also the antithetic reverse fault or backthrust.

Faults Models

Faults Models

1. Quantitative pure-shear model. A pure-shear regime refers to a change in shape without a change in volume, and a change in which the strain axis (s1, s2, s3) do not rotate.

Faults Models
The once active margins of a rift system may become inactive and form passive continental margins.

The pure-shear model. Note the symmetrical nature and domino nature of the normal faults.

Faults Models

2. Qualitative simple-shear model. Simple-shear refers to a change in shape where all particles of the deforming body move into parallel lines. The amount of movement is a function of the distance of each particle from a given plane of which there are no displacements.

Simple variations and combinations of the two models.

Faults Models

The Qualitative simple-shear model. Note how the detachment fault extends completely through the crust to the asthenoshpere.

Seismic Example 1

Seismic Example 1
Wrench Faulting

Reversal of throw direction along the same fault plane and the antiform stucture above the location of the apparent normal fault are diagnostic of wrench (strikeslip or oblique-slip) faulting.

Seismic Example 2

Seismic Example 2

Wrench Faulting Flower Structure

A tulip or flower structure, characteristic of wrench fault tectonics. Such deformation usually occur in less indurated elastic sediments overlaying a zone of strike-slip faults.

Seismic Example 3