Chapter 2 Network Models

Network Model
Network Model is conceptual structure which shows how various parts are fit together and work together to transmit data. Network model is categorized into two types:1. ISO-OSI Reference Model 2. TCP/IP Reference Model / Internet Model

ISO/OSI Reference Model

ISO is International Standards Organization developed in 1947. It is multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards.

An ISO standard develop the model that covers all aspects of network communication called as Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
The designing of the OSI model is based on the proposal developed by ISO as first step towards international standardization of protocol used in various layers.

OSI Reference Model

The OSI model was introduced in 1984. The OSI model is a technology standard maintained by the International Standards Organization (ISO).

The OSI is an abstract model of how network protocols and equipment should communicate and work together (interoperate).
Also Known As: Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, OSI seven layer model

Conti.
The OSI Model is a model that illustrates how data communications should take place.

OSI Reference Model Diagram

The short form used to memorize the layer names of the OSI Model is All People Seem To Need Data Processing.

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The OSI model defines internetworking in terms of a vertical stack of seven layers. The upper layers of the OSI model represent software that implements network services like encryption and connection management. The lower layers of the OSI model implement more primitive, hardware-oriented functions like routing, addressing, and flow control.

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Layers in the OSI model are ordered from lowest level to highest. Together, these layers comprise the OSI stack. The stack contains seven layers in two groups: Upper layers 7. application 6. presentation 5. session Lower layers 4. transport 3. network 2. data link
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In the OSI model, 1. Data communication starts with the top layer at the sending side, 2. Travels down the OSI model stack to the bottom layer, 3. Then traverses the network connection to the bottom layer on the receiving side, and up its OSI model stack.

Examples
Lower layers of the OSI model are represented by technologies like Ethernet. Higher layers of the OSI model are represented by application protocols like TCP and UDP. Internet Protocol (IP) corresponds to the Network layer of the OSI model, layer three. TCP and UDP correspond to OSI model layer four, the Transport layer.
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Application Layer Functions [Layer 7]

The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access network services. The Application Layer of the OSI model is responsible for providing end-user services, such as:1. File transfers, 2. Electronic messaging, 3. E-mail, 4. Virtual terminal access, and 5. Network management. This is the layer with which the user interacts.
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User

User

Application Layer

Application Layer

L7 data

L7 data

From Presentation Layer

To Presentation Layer

X.400

FTAM

X.500

X.400

FTAM

X.500

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Presentation Layer Functions [Layer 6]

The Presentation Layer of the OSI model is responsible for :1. Defining the syntax which two network hosts use to communicate. 2. Encryption and compression should be Presentation Layer functions. This layer translates data from a format used by the application layer into a common format at the sending station, then translate the common format to a format known to the application layer at the receiving station, for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

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From Application layer To Application layer

L7 data

L7 data

Presentation Layer

Encoded, Encrypted, and compressed data

H6

Presentation Layer

Decoded, decrypted, and decompressed data

H6

L6 data

L6 data

To Session Layer

From Session Layer

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Session Layer Functions [Layer 5]

It allows two application processes on different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, which is called a session. The Session Layer of the OSI model is responsible for:1. Establishing process-to-process communications between networked hosts.

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From Presentation layer To Presentation Layer L6 data L6 data

Session Layer

H5

Session Layer

H5

Syn

Syn

L5 data

L5 data

To Transport Layer

From Transport Layer

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Transport Layer Functions [Layer 4]

The transport layer guarantees that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no losses. The Transport Layer of the OSI model is responsible for:-

1. Delivering messages between networked hosts. 2. The Transport Layer should be responsible for fragmentation and reassembly.

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From Session layer To Session layer

L5 data

L5 data

Transport Layer H4 H4 H4

Transport Layer H4 H4 H4

L4 data

L4 data

L4 data

L4 data

L4 data To Network Layer

L4 data From Network Layer

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Network Layer Functions [Layer 3]

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It translates logical addresses into physical addresses. The Network Layer of the OSI model is responsible for:-

1. Establishing paths for data transfer through the network. 2. Routers operate at the Network Layer.
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T2 Data A B 10 87 Trailer Source Physical Address Destination Physical Address Source Logical Address Destination Logical Address

From Transport layer

To Transport layer

L4 data

L4 data

Network Layer

H3

Network Layer Packet

H3

Packet

L3 data
To Data Link Layer

L3 data
From Data Link Layer

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Data Link Layer Functions [Layer 2]

The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume almost error-free transmission over the link.

The Data Link Layer of the OSI model is responsible for :1. Communications between adjacent network nodes. 2. Hubs and switches operate at the Data Link Layer.

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Trailer

T2

Data Source Address

10

87

Destination Address

From network layer

To network layer

L3 data

L3 data

Data Link Layer

T2

H2 Frame

Data Link Layer

T2

H2 Frame

10101000010 To Physical Layer

10101000010 From Physical Layer

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Physical Layer Functions [Layer 1]

The Physical Layer of the OSI model is responsible for :1. Bit-level transmission between network nodes. 2. The Physical Layer defines items such as: connector types, cable types, voltages. 3. It deals with mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. 4. It also defines procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.

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From data link layer To data link layer

L2 data

L2 data

Physical Layer

Physical Layer

10101000010

10101000010

Transmission Medium

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Benefits of the OSI Model

1. By separating the network communications into logical smaller pieces, the OSI model simplifies how network protocols are designed. 2. The OSI model was designed to ensure different types of equipment (such as network adapters, hubs, and routers) would all be compatible even if built by different manufacturers.

3. The OSI model also makes network designs more extensible as new protocols and other network services are generally easier to add to a layered architecture than to a monolithic one.

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Interfaces between Layers

The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending machine back up through the layers of the receiving machine is made possible by interface between each pair of adjacent layers.

Each interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for the layer above it.

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Organization of the Layer

The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers 1, 2, and 3 physical, data link and network are the network support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to other (such as electrical specifications, physical connections, physical addressing, and transport timing and reliability) Layer 4, the transport layer, ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission.
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Layers 5, 6 and 7 session, presentation and application can be thought of as the user support layers: they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems. The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software; lower layers are combination of hardware and software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly hardware.

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TCP/IP Reference Model

ARPANET: Grandparent of computer networks and worldwide Internet. ARPANET was research network sponsored by DOD (Department of Defense). It eventually connected universities and government installations using leased telephone lines. When satellite and radio networks gets added there is need of new architecture.
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Conti.
Goal: to connect multiple networks together in seamless way. Architecture is TCP/IP. TCP/IP is the communication protocol for communication between computers on the Internet. TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. TCP/IP defines how electronic devices (like computers) should be connected to the Internet, and how data should be transmitted between them. 32

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TCP/IP is TCP and IP working together. TCP takes care of the communication between your application software (i.e. your browser) and your network software. IP takes care of the communication with other computers.

TCP is responsible for breaking data down into IP packets before they are sent, and for assembling the packets when they arrive.
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IP is responsible for sending the packets to the correct destination. IP corresponds to the Network layer (Layer 3) in the OSI model, whereas TCP corresponds to the Transport layer (Layer 4) in OSI. In other words, the term TCP/IP refers to network communications where the TCP transport is used to deliver data across IP networks.

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The model is composed of five ordered Layers:
Application Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer/ Internet Layer

Data Link Layer

Host-toNetwork

Physical Layer

At the time of transmitting message the message uses intermediate nodes at lower layers.
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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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Host-to-network Layer
Layer is developed by combining physical layer and data link layer. In addition to OSI model functionality, it adds a special protocol which helps to send IP packets over it.

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Internet Layer/Network Layer

It is a connectionless layer. Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel independently to the destination (on different network). They may arrive in different order than they were sent, in which case it is the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired. The Internet Layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol).

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Transport Layer
It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on conversations; the same as in the OSI transport Layer. Two end-to-end protocols have been defined here. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User datagram Protocol).

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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

It is reliable connection-oriented protocol. Allows a byte stream originating on one machine to deliver without error on any other machine in the Internet.

It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes each one onto the internet layer. At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the output stream.

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TCP also handles flow control to synchronize senders and receivers clock. TCP/IP is not really a protocol, but a set of protocols a protocol stack, as it is most commonly called.

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UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

It is an unreliable connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCPs sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their own. It is widely used for one shot, client server type request-reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is important than accurate delivery.

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Application Layer
It consists of all higher-level protocols. The early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP) and electronic mail (SMTP) protocols.

The TELNET allows user on one machine to log into a distant machine and work there. The FTP provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to another.

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Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file transfer, but later a specialized protocol was developed for it. Many other protocols have been added to these, such as Domain Name Server (DNS) for mapping host names onto their network addresses, NNTP to move news articles around and HTTP to fetch pages on the World Wide Web.

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Protocols
IP- Internet Protocol PPP - Point to point protocol DNS - Domain Name Service ARP - Address resolution protocol ICMP - Internet control message protocol RARP - Reverse address resolution protocol SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol FTP - File Transfer Protocol DHCP - Dynamic host configuration protocol NNTP- Network News Transfer Protocol RIP-Routing Information Protocol IGMP- Internet Group Management Protocol
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Addressing
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols: 1. Physical (link) addresses, 2. Logical (IP) addresses, 3. Port addresses, and 4. Specific addresses

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Relationship of Layers & Addresses in TCP/IP

Each address is related to a specific layer in the TCP/IP network model architecture, as shown in Fig .

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Physical Addresses
Physical addresses also known as link addresses. It is the address of a node defined by its LAN or WAN. It is included in the frame used by the data link layer. It is the lowest-level address. These addresses in a network model have authority over the network (LAN or WAN).

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Conti.
The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network. For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address that is imprinted on the network interface card (NIC). LocalTalk (Apple), however, has a 1-byte dynamic address that changes each time the station comes up.

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Conti.

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In Fig. a node with physical address 10 in a network model sends a frame to a node with physical address 87 . The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN).

At the data link layer in network model, this frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header. These are the only addresses needed.
The rest of the header contains other information needed at this level.

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Conti.
The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection. The computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver. The data link layer in network model at the sender receives data from an upper layer in a network model. It encapsulates the data in a frame, adding a header and a trailer.
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Conti.
The header, among other pieces of information, carries the receiver and the sender's physical (link) addresses. Note that in most data link protocols in a network model, the destination address, 87 in this case, comes before the source address (10 in this case). Fig. shows a bus topology for an isolated LAN. In a bus topology, the frame is propagated in both directions (left and right).
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The frame propagated to the left dies when it reaches the end of the cable if the cable end is terminated appropriately. The frame propagated to the right is sent to every station on the network model. Each station with a physical addresses other than 87 drops the frame because the destination address in the frame does not match its own physical address.

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Conti.
The intended destination computer, however, finds a match between the destination address in the frame and its own physical address. The frame is checked, the header and trailer are dropped, and the data part is decapsulated and delivered to the upper layer in the network model.

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Logical Addresses
Logical addresses in a network model are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying physical networks. Physical addresses in a network model are not adequate in an internetwork environment where different networks can have different address formats.

A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network.
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Conti.
A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that can uniquely define a host connected to the Internet. No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same IP address.

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Fig. shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has only one pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three network models So each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each connection.

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Port Addresses
The IP address and the physical address in a network model are necessary for a quantity of data to travel from a source to the destination host. However, arrival at the destination host is not the final objective of data communications on the Internet. Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time.

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Conti.
The end objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with another process. For example, computer A can communicate with computer C by using TELNET. At the same time, computer A communicates with computer B by using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a method to label the different processes.
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In other words, they need addresses. In the TCP/IP network model architecture, the label assigned to a process is called a port address.

A port address in TCP/IP network model is 16 bits in length.

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Specific Addresses
Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address. Examples include the e-mail address (for example, networkmodel@network.edu) and the Universal Resource Locator (URL) (for example, www.network-model.com). The first defines the recipient of an e-mail, the second is used to find a document on the World Wide Web.

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Conti.
Addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding port and logical addresses by the sending computer in a network model.

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