CHAPTER 3: AC

POWER ANALYSIS
Instantaneous & Average Power
Max. Average Power Transfer
RMS Value & Apparent Power
Complex Power & Power Factor
Correction

Instantaneous Power
) t ( i ) t ( v ) t ( p =
Instantaneous power (in watts) : the power at
any instant of time
) t cos( V ) t ( v
v m
u + e =
Where:
) t cos( I ) t ( i
i m
u + e =
{ } ) t 2 cos( ) cos(
2
I V
) t ( p
i v i v
m m
u + u + e + u u =
Instantaneous Power
The instantaneous power p(t) entering a circuit
Average Power

) cos(
2
I V
P
i v
m m
u u =
Average Power (in watts) : the average of
the instantaneous power over one period
i v
u u = u
u = cos
2
I V
P
m m Where:

Average Power

u = cos I V P
eff eff
2
I
I or I
m
eff rms
=
2
or
m
eff rms
V
V V =
Example 1
V ) 45 t 377 cos( 120 ) t ( v
0
+ = A ) 10 t 377 cos( 10 ) t ( i
0
=
Find the instantaneous power and
average power absorbed by the passive
linear network.
Given that
Reference : Alexander, Sadiku Chapter 11 - page 461
Exercise 1
Calculate the instantaneous power and average
power if
V ) 20 t 10 cos( 80 ) t ( v
0
+ =
A ) 60 t 10 sin( 15 ) t ( i
0
+ =
W ) 10 t 20 cos( 600 7 . 385 ) t ( p
0
+ =
W 7 . 385 P =
Circuit Elements
In purely resistive circuit, v and i are in phase.
v = i. Therefore = 0.
( ) R I
R
V
I V
2
I V
0 cos
2
I V
P
2
eff
2
eff
eff eff
m m
0
m m
= = = = =
(a) Resistors:
The average power is only dissipated in a purely resistive
circuit. For a purely inductive and capacitive, the average
power is zero.
Circuit Elements
In purely inductive circuit, v leads by 90
o
,
therefore = 90
o

0 ) 90 cos(
2
= =
o m m
I V
P
(b) Inductors:
(c) Capacitors:
In purely capacitive circuit, I leads by 90
o
,
therefore = - 90
o

0 ) 90 cos(
2
= =
o m m
I V
P
Example 2
Find the average power supplies by the source
and the average power absorbed by the resistor.
Reference : Alexander, Sadiku Chapter 11 - page 462
Exercise 2
Calculate the average power absorbed by the resistor and
inductor. Find the average power supplies by the voltage source.
W 6 . 9 P
W 0 P
W 6 . 9 P
L
R
=
=
=
Maximum Average Power
Transfer
Finding the maximum average power transfer:


a) circuit with a load b) the Thevenin equivalent
Maximum Average Power
Transfer
For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must
be equal to the complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh
L L L
Th Th Th
jX R Z
jX R Z
+ =
+ =
In rectangular form, Thevenin impedance and Load impedance:
Th
*
Th Th L L L
Z jX R jX R Z = = + =
Th
*
L
Z Z =
Maximum Average Power
Transfer
Th
2
Th
max
R 8
V
P =
In a situation in which the load is purely real or purely
resistive load (XL=0), the load impedance (or resistance RL)
is equal to the magnitude of the Thevenin impedance.
Th
2
Th
2
Th L
Z X R R = + =
Example 3
Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes the average
power drawn from the circuit of figure below. Calculate the
maximum average power.
Reference : Alexander, Sadiku Chapter 11 - page 466
Exercise 3
Find the load impedance ZL that absorbs the maximum average power
for the circuit of figure below. Calculate the maximum average power.
O = = 7317 . 0 j 415 . 3 Z Z Th
*
L
W 429 . 1 P
max
=
Exercise 4
In Figure below, the resistor RL is adjusted until it absorbs the
maximum average power. Calculate RL and the maximum
average power absorbed by it.
W 883 . 9 P
max
= O = 30 R
L
Effective or RMS Value
The effective value of a periodic current is the dc
current that delivers the same average power to a
resistor as the periodic current.
Finding the effective current:

a) ac circuit b) dc circuit
Effective or RMS Value
dt x
T
1
X
T
0
2
rms
}
=
The effective value of a periodic signals is its root mean
square (rms) value.
For any perodic function x(t) in general, the rms value is
given by:
Effective or RMS Value
dt t cos I
T
1
I
T
0
2 2
m rms
}
e =
2
I
dt ) t 2 cos 1 (
2
1
T
I
I
m
T
0
2
m
rms
= e + =
}
2
V
V
m
rms
=
Effective or RMS Value
The average power absorbed by resistor R can be
written as:
R I
R
V
P
2
rms
2
rms
= =
) cos( I V P
i v rms rms
u u =
The average power can be written as:
Example 4
i(t)
t
0
10
-10
2 4 6 8 10
Determine the rms value of the current waveform in
figure below. If the current is passed through a 2
resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.
A 165 . 8 I
rms
=
W 3 . 133 P =
Reference : Alexander, Sadiku Chapter 11
- page 469
Exercise 5
Find the rms value of the full wave rectified sine wave in figure
below. Calculate the average power dissipated in a 6 resistor.
V 657 . 5 V
rms
= W 334 . 5 P =
v(t)
t
0
8
t t 2 t 3
Apparent Power
The apparent power (in VA) is the product of
the rms value of voltage and current.
) cos( I V P
i v rms rms
u u =
) cos( S P
i v
u u =
rms rms
I V S =
S is known as the apparent power.
Power Factor
The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference
between voltage and current. It is also the cosine of
the angle of the load impedance.
) cos( pf
i v
u u =
i v
u u
Power Factor :
is Power Factor Angle
pf is lagging if the current lags voltage (inductive load)
pf is leading if the current leads voltage (capacitive load)
For purely resistive circuit, pf=1. With inductors and
capacitors in the circuit, pf may reduced to less than 1.
where
Example 5
A series connected load draw
a current
when the applied voltage is
Find the apparent power and the power factor of the
load. Determine the element values that form the series
connected load.
A ) 10 t 100 cos( 4 ) t ( i
0
+ t =
V ) 20 t 100 cos( 120 ) t ( v
0
t =
V 240 S= ) leading ( 866 . 0 pf = uF 2 . 212 C=
Reference : Alexander, Sadiku Chapter 11 - page 472
Exercise 6
Calculate the power factor of the circuit below as
seen by the source. What is the average power
supplies by the source?
) lagging ( 936 . 0 pf = W 118 P =
Complex Power
Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage
phasor and the complex conjugate of the rms current
phasor. As a complex quantity, its real part is real power P
and its imaginary part is reactive power Q.
i v rms rms
*
I V VI
2
1
jQ P S u u Z = = + =
*
2
rms
2
rms
Z
V
Z I S = =
Complex power :
VA
*
rms rms
I V =
Complex Power
2 2
rms rms
Q P I V S S + = = =
Apparent power :
Real power :
) cos( S ) S Re( P
i v
u u = = W
Reactive power :
) sin( S ) S Im( Q
i v
u u = = VAR
VA
Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity power factor)
Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading power factor)
Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging power factor)

Complex Power
Q
P
S
X
R
IZI
Power triangle Impedance triangle
u u
S
P
cos pf = u =
Complex Power
Power Triangle
Example 6
The voltage across a load is
and the current through the element in the direction
of the voltage drop is
Find
a) the complex and apparent powers
b) the real and reactive powers
c) the power factor and the load impedance
V ) 10 t cos( 60 ) t ( v
0
e =
A ) 50 t cos( 5 . 1 ) t ( i
0
+ e =
Reference : Alexander, Sadiku Chapter 11 - page 475
Example 7
A load Z draws 12kVA at a power factor of 0.856
lagging from a 120 Vrms sinusoidal source.
Calculate:
a) the average and reactive powers delivered to
the load
b) the peak current
c) the load impedance
Reference : Alexander, Sadiku Chapter 11 - page 476
Exercise 7
A sinusoidal source supplies 10kVAR reactive
power to load
Determine:
a) the power factor
b) the apparent power delivered to the load
c) the peak voltage
O Z =
0
75 250 Z
Power Factor Correction
The process of increasing the power factor without altering
the voltage or current to the original load is known as power
factor correction.
Most loads are inductive. A load power factor is improved
(to make closer to unity, pf=1) by installing a capacitor in
parallel with the load.
a) Original inductive load b) inductive load with improved
power factor
Power Factor Correction
Phasor diagram showing the effect of adding a
capacitor in parallel with the inductive load
Power Factor Correction
Power triangle illustrating power factor correction
Power Factor Correction
2
rms
2 1
2
rms
C
V
) tan (tan P
V
Q
C
e
u u
=
e
=
) tan (tan P Q Q Q
2 1 2 1 C
u u = =
2
rms
C
2
rms
C
CV
X
V
Q e = =
Value of required shunt capacitance :
Example 8
When connected to a 120 V (rms), 60Hz power
line, a load absorbs 4kW at a lagging power
factor of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance
necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.
Reference : Alexander, Sadiku Chapter 11 - page 482
Exercise 8
Find the value of parallel capacitance needed to
correct a load of 140kVAR at 0.85 lagging pf to
unity pf. Assume that the load is supplied by a
110V (rms), 60Hz line.