Graphical methods of describing the data are easy to understand and provide comprehensive information for analysis of product

or process data. The information they provide on product or process characteristics helps us to identify the area of improvement, since quality improvement is a continuous process.

FREQENCY DISTRIBUTIONS AND HISTOGRAMS

A frequency distribution is a re-arrangement of raw data in a ascending or descending order of magnitude so that the data can be subdivided into classes and no. of occurrences in each class can be presented.
EXAMPLE ; Actual observations of diameter of pistons are tabulated. They are grouped into ten categories depending on their diameter. Then relative and cumulative relative frequency is calculated. These are presented in FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM.

FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM
HISTOGRAM is a graphical display of these data. While grouping the data care should be taken so that there should not be any kind of overlap. These HISTOGRAMS are analyzed studied in detail and corrective action is initiated to improve the quality.

CONSTRUCT A FREQUENCY HISTOGRAM.

1.
2.

3. 4.

5.

Find the range of observations. Choose the no. of cells or classes. If n is the no. of data points then n is the no. of classes. Determine the width of the classes. Find the no. of observations in each class without any overlapping. Draw the frequency histogram corresponding to the frequencies

Problem on Histogram

Draw a histogram to represent the following, 0-8 6 8-16 16-24 24-32 32-40 9 12 10 5

Class interval Frequency

HISTOGRAM
14

12
10 8

6
4

2
0

0-8

Aug-16

16-24

24-32

32-40

For the inclusive data or discontinuous data first convert it to exclusive form, for this calculate the adjustment factor.

= ( difference between the upper limit of a class and the lower limit of a next class. ) Then subtract the adjustment factor from all lower limits and add it to all upper limits.

When the class intervals are of unequal size the find out the frequency density. It is calculated by dividing frequency of each class by the length of that class. Cumulative frequency curve is drawn by plotting class intervals on x co-ordinate and corresponding cumulative frequency on yaxis. Join these points and the curve we get is the cumulative frequency curve.

The following data represents the heights in inches of a Radom sample of 50 two year old babies. Draw the Histogram.
36.0 36.2 34.8 36.0 34.6 38.4 35.4 36.8 33.4 37.4 38.2 31.5 37.7 36.9 34.0 34.4 35.7 37.9 39.3 34.0 36.9 35.1 37.0 33.2 36.1 35.2 35.6 33.0 36.8 33.5 35.0 35.1 35.2 34.4 36.7 36.0 36.0 35.7 35.7 38.3 33.6 39.8 37.0 37.2 34.8 35.7 38.9 37.2 39.3 34.7

Frequency calculation after dividing the range into classes. class

31.5 - 32.5
32.5 - 33.5 33.5 - 34.5 34.5 - 35.5 35.5 - 36.5 36.5 - 37.5 37.5 - 38.5 38.5 - 39.5 39.5 - 40.5 40.5 - 41.5 frequency

1
4 5 8 11 9 8 2 2 0

histogram

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Example ; Draw the frequency histogram for the following data.

24

53

45

64

36

74

59

30

48

65

31
81 27 42 51 58 82 21 54

60
32 83 55 64 33 51 41 58

70
57 25 50 51 66 55 32 23

58
52 84 56 52 33 43 45 58

85
68 37 53 40 54 55 49 50

52
40 35 41 28 56 72 61 63

62
60 56 39 34 46 75 69 68

61
59 76 59 76 51 73 42 52

87
78 65 57 63 43 66 79 64

44
49 67 47 71 69 45 46 62

Smallest no. is 21 and largest no. is 87 hence the classes are, 20-29,30-39,40-49,50-59,60-69,70-79, 80-89. and the frequency distribution are as follows
class 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 frequency 6 11 18 29 20 10 6

HISTOGRAM OF THE DATA.

STEM AND LEAF PLOTS ; This is the method of plotting observations graphically to represent the quality characteristics , so that the identity of a individual values are retained to draw any conclusion.

In histogram we loose the information about the indidual values after we put them into classes and display the histogram. The stem and display however provides us with essentially the same information as histogram without loosing the indidual values, steam and leaf display the information into how the data was obtained.

21 3 4 5 7 8

3 0 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 9
4 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 6 6 7 8 9 9 5 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 6 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 9 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 8 9 8 1 2 3 4 5 7

PARETO DIAGRAMS :

These diagrams represents the problems and their frequency of occurrence and accordingly they are divided as vital few OR trivial many. 80% of the problems are created by 20% of the causes. Pareto diagram arrange the problems in the order of importance.

PARETO DIAGRAM helps,

1. To identify the critical problems 2. The problem which require immediate attention. 3. It guides management to allocate the resources to solve the problem. 4 Graphs are drawn showing the relative importance of each problem area in a descending order so that immediate action can be initiated against vital problems. 5. These diagrams are also drawn after the remedial action taken so as to compare improvement.

PARETO DIAGRAM

BOX PLOTS This diagram shows the variability of the data with respect to the set values

CONSTRUCTION OF BOX PLOTS Sample of 16 numbers are as follows 18,19,23,24,26,29,31,33,35,37,40,42,45,47,and 49.

Put all the numbers in ascending order. Calculate the median i.e. 33+35/2 = 34 Compute the two hinges which are equivalent to the two medians for each half of the data. For the first half 24+26/2 =25 For the second half 40+42/2 = 41.

Drawing the box plot

The two hinges determine the top and bottom of the box Overall median is represented by horizontal line running across the box. Vertical line is drawn from the top of the box to a point representing the largest value and a similar line is drawn down from the bottom of the box to reach the smallest value.

BOX PLOT
50 40 35 25 15

RUN CHARTS ; These charts are drawn from the data as they occur, the data which represents quality characteristics with respect to time provide a general trend and variability of the process.

SCATTER DIAGRAMS :

These diagrams are drawn between two variables to depict the relation between the two. The relationship between two controllable characteristics is studied to set or correct the controllable variable to achieve the desired results.

CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAMS : This diagram is the list of causes and its effect on the product and process. the application of cause and effect diagrams are , 1 . CAUSE ENUMERATION : First quality characteristics are studied, major cause for non conformance is identified , then the sub causes are also identified. Then these are studied in detail so that a proper corrective action is initiated which in turn will help to improve the quality.

Workers

Materials Vibration

Inspection

Equipment
(Cause)

(Effect)

2. DISPERSION ANALYSIS : This is also similar to cause enumeration , here only major cause affecting the quality is studied analyzed and corrective action is taken This process repeated for every major cause in a prioritized manner. 3. PROCESS ANALYSIS : Cause and effect diagram is drawn for process analysis also, listing the cause in a sequence in which the operations are actually carried out.

NORMAL PROBABILITY PLOTS

To draw these graphs observations are ranked in a ascending order , each observations are plotted, straight line is estimated and drawn to pass through maximum possible plotted points . Then the graph is studied to check the deviations of the data from the standard.

MULTIVARIABLE CHARTS In realistic problems more then one variable is affecting the quality, charts drawn from the data which depicts more then one variable is known as multi variable charts. Ex radial plots.