SHAMBU SUGATHAN C/P : MS.

MALAR

 Sigmund Freud was born

on the 6th May 1856 in the small country town of Freiberg Czech Republic.
Eldest son of Jacob Freud,

Jewish merchant & Amalia.

He was the first of their eight

children and owing to his precocious intellect, his parents favoured him over his siblings from the early stages of his childhood.

 Freud was an outstanding pupil and graduated the

Matura in 1873 with honors.

After planning to study law, Freud joined the medical

faculty at University of Vienna to study under

Darwinist Prof. Karl Claus.

In 1874, the concept of "psychodynamics" was

proposed with the publication of Lectures on Physiology by German physiologist Ernst Wilhelm von Brcke

 During this year, at the University of Vienna, Brcke served

as supervisor for first-year medical student Sigmund Freud

who adopted this new "dynamic" physiology.
This was the starting point for Freud's dynamic psychology

of the mind and its relation to the unconscious.

In 1879, Freud interrupted his studies to complete his one

year of obligatory military service, and in 1881 he received his Dr. med. (M.D.) with the thesis "on the spinal cord of lower fish species"

 In October 1885 Freud went to

Paris on a travelling fellowship to study with Europe's most renowned neurologist, Jean

Martin Charcot.
Charcot specialised in the study

of hysteria and its susceptibility to hypnosis which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience.

 After opening his own medical practice, specializing in

neurology, Freud married Martha Bernays in 1886.

After experimenting with hypnosis on his neurotic

patients, Freud abandoned this form of treatment as it proved ineffective for many, in favor of a treatment

where the patient talked through his or her problems.

 An early state of Freud's understanding of how the mind

worked came in his book On Aphasia (1891).

Freud challenged the prevailing notions of brain

localization of function advanced by Pierre Broca, Karl Wernicke, Theodor Meynert, and others.
Rather than thinking in terms of brain centers, Broca's

speech center, Freud related the functions of speech to functional capacities in a widespread network of visual,

acoustic, tactile, and even kinesthetic associations

reflecting generalized changes in the functioning of the brain as a whole.

 Thus he viewed simple psychological functions, like

perception or memory, as physiologically complex and

involving multiple brain systems.

The Project :
The effort to bridge the chasm between psychological

processes and neurological mechanisms came to a climax in Freud's attempt to construct a scientific psychology; that is, a psychology based on neurological principles.

 From 1895 to 1897, Freud struggled with these ideas.

Finally, in the white heat of intense inspiration, in a period of no more than 3 weeks, he wrote out what is known today as the Project for a Scientific Psychology.
The Project was based on two principal theorems:
The nervous system was composed exclusively of

neurons, separated by contact barriers

 A quantitative concept of neural excitation (Qn)

transmitted from cell to cell in the nervous system and either stored or discharged, thus accounting for various

forms of nervous activity.

The energy in this early model was simply a form of

quantitative excitation within a closed-system neuronal reflex model, but it quickly acquired surplus meaning as a hypothetical substance with hydrostatic properties.

 Freud used psychic energy both as a device to describe

observable phenomena and as a construct in his model of the mind.

As Freud's viewpoint became increasingly

psychological, his use of concepts of drive and energy

became increasingly metaphorical.

After his abandonment of the Project, he preferred to

think of his theories as purely psychological, but even

so, the energic assumptions carried over into the structural theory

Beginnings of Psychoanalysis
From 1887 to 1897, Freud immersed himself in the serious

study of the disturbances in his hysterical patients, resulting in discoveries that contributed to the beginnings of psychoanalysis.
This led to:
Emergence of psychoanalysis as a method of investigation, As a therapeutic technique, As a body of scientific knowledge based on an increasing fund

of information and basic theoretical propositions.

 These early researches flowed out of Freud's initial

collaboration with Joseph Breuer

The Case of Anna O.
Studies on Hysteria: The collaboration with Breuer brought about publication

of their Preliminary Communication in 1893.

Hysterical symptoms they thought were related to psychic

traumata, sometimes clearly and directly but also

sometimes in a symbolic disguise.

 On the basis of these cases Freud reconstructed the

following sequence of steps in the development of

hysteria:
The patient had undergone a traumatic experience The traumatic experience represented to the patient

some idea or ideas incompatible with the dominant mass of ideas constituting the ego.
This incompatible idea was intentionally dissociated

or repressed from consciousness.

 The excitation associated with the incompatible idea

was converted into somatic pathways, resulting in hysterical manifestations and symptoms.
What was left in consciousness was merely a

mnemonic symbol only connected with the traumatic

event by associative links that are frequently enough

disguised.

 If the memory of the traumatic experience can be

brought into consciousness and if the patient is able to sufficiently release the strangulated affect associated with it, then the affect is discharged and symptoms

disappear.

"talking cure"

 In the beginning, he used hypnotic suggestion to

enable patients to rid themselves of their symptoms.

It became quickly obvious, however, that although

patients responded to hypnotic suggestion and were relieved of symptoms, the symptoms would

nonetheless reassert themselves after a period of time.

 By 1889, then, Freud was sufficiently intrigued by Breuer's

cathartic method to use it in conjunction with hypnotic

techniques as a means of retracing the histories of neurotic

symptoms.
Consequently, the goal of treatment was restricted to

removal of symptoms through recovery and verbalization of suppressed feelings with which symptoms were associated.
This procedure has since been described as abreaction.

 Freud had begun to suspect that inhibited sexuality

may have played a role in producing the patient's

symptoms.
Freud began to understand that the therapeutic

effectiveness of the patientphysician relationship.

These observations became the basis of the theory of

transference he later developed into an explicit theory of treatment.

Concentration Method

Free Association
Noticing and reporting whatever comes into the head and

not being misled, for instance, into suppressing an idea

because it strikes him as unimportant or irrelevant or because it seems to him meaningless.
He must adopt a completely impartial attitude to what

occurs to him, since it is precisely his critical attitude which

is responsible for his being unable, in the ordinary course

of things, to achieve the desired unraveling of his dream or obsessional idea or whatever it may be.

 Thus, free association became the definitive technique of

psychoanalysis.
Opened the door to the exploration of dreams. RESISTANCE: But Freud also discovered that his patients were often quite

unwilling or unable to recall the traumatic memories.

He defined this reluctance of his patients as resistance.

 Freud's conclusion was that resistance was a matter of

the operation of active forces in the mind, of which the patients themselves were often quite unaware, and which tended to maintain the exclusion from

consciousness of painful or distressing material.

 REPRESSION:
A traumatic experience or a series of experiences, usually of

a sexual nature and often occurring in childhood, had been forgotten or repressed because of their painful or disagreeable nature; but the excitation involved in sexual stimulation was not extinguished, and traces of it persisted in the unconscious in the form of repressed memories.

return of the repressed

Interpretation of Dreams
In the process of free association, his patients would

frequently report their dreams along with the associative material that seemed connected with them.
He discovered little by little that dreams had a definite

meaning, although that meaning was often quite hidden

and disguised.
royal road to the unconscious.

 He viewed the dream experience as a conscious

expression of unconscious fantasies or wishes not readily accessible to conscious waking experience.
The dream images represented unconscious wishes or

thoughts, disguised through a process of

symbolization and other distorting mechanisms.
Freud postulated the existence of a censor, pictured

as guarding the border between the unconscious part of the mind and the preconscious level.

 The censor functioned to exclude unconscious wishes

during conscious states but, during regressive

relaxation of sleep, allowed certain unconscious

contents to pass the border, only after transformation of these unconscious wishes into disguised forms experienced in the manifest dream contents by the sleeping subject.
Freud assumed that the censor worked in the service

of the ego

Analysis of Dream Content

Dream thoughts contain content that had been repressed

or excluded from consciousness by defensive activities of the ego.

Manifest dream embodying the content of the dream as

experienced by the dreamer, which the sleeper may or may not be able to recall after waking, is the product of dream activity.
Unconscious thoughts and wishes that in Freud's view

threatened to awaken the sleeper were described as latent dream content.

 Freud referred to unconscious mental operations by

which latent dream content was transformed into the manifest dream as the dream work.
Associative Exploration Nocturnal Sensory Stimuli
variety of sensory impressions, for example, pain,

hunger, thirst, or urinary urgency, may play a role in

determining dream content.

Day Residues
One of the important elements contributing to

shaping the dream thoughts is the residue of thoughts,

ideas, and feelings left over from experiences of the preceding day.
These residues remain active in the unconscious and,

like sensory stimuli, can be incorporated by the sleeper

into thought content of the manifest dream.

Repressed Infantile Drives

The ultimate driving forces behind dream activity and

dream formation were the wishes, originating in drives, stemming from an infantile level of psychic development.
These drives and wishes took their content specifically

from oedipal and preoedipal levels of psychic

integration.

The Dream Work

The theory of the nature of dream work became the

fundamental description of the operation of unconscious processesthe basic mechanisms and the manner of their operatingthat stands even today as an unsurpassed and foundational account of unconscious mental functioning.
The theory of dream work consequently became the basis

for a wide-ranging analysis of unconscious operations that found expression in Freud's study of everyday experiences, as well as artistic creativity, jokes and humor, and a variety of culturally based activities of the human mind.

 Freud saw it, the state of sleep brought with it relaxation of

repression, and concomitantly, latent unconscious wishes

and impulses were then permitted to press for discharge and gratification.
state of sleep brought with it relaxation of repression, and

concomitantly, latent unconscious wishes and impulses were then permitted to press for discharge and gratification.

 Because the pathway to motor expression was blocked in

the sleep state, these repressed wishes and impulses had to

find other means of representation by way of mechanisms of thought and fantasy.
Activity of the dream censor provided continual resistance

to discharge of these impulses, with the result that the impulses had to be attached to more neutral or innocent images to be able to pass the scrutiny of censorship and be allowed into conscious expression.

 These mechanisms, as envisioned in Freud's theory,

included symbolism, displacement, condensation, projection, and secondary revision.

SYMBOLISM:
o representative of or substitute for some other idea

from which it derives a secondary significance that it does not possess of itself.
o represents this primary element by reason of a

common element that these ideas share.

o characteristically sensory and concrete in nature, as

opposed to the idea it represents, which may be relatively abstract and complex.
o Symbolic modes of thought are more primitive, both

ontogenetically and phylogenetically, and represent forms of regression to earlier stages of mental development.
o A symbol is thus a manifest expression of an idea that

is more or less hidden or secret.

 DISPLACEMENT: o The mechanism of displacement refers to the transfer of

amounts of energy (cathexis) from an original object to a substitute or symbolic representation of the object.
CONDENSATION:
o Condensation is the mechanism by which several

unconscious wishes, impulses, or attitudes can be combined into a single image in the manifest dream content.

 PROJECTION: o The process of projection allows dreamers to rid

themselves of their own unacceptable wishes or impulses

and experience them as emanating in the dream from other persons or independent sources.
Secondary Revision:
o through a process of secondary revision, acquire a

coherence and rationality that are necessary for acceptance on the part of the subject's more mature and reasonable ego.

TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL:
Freud's thinking about the mental apparatus at this

time was based on the classification of mental operations and contents according to regions or systems in the mind.
These systems were described neither in anatomical

nor spatial terms but were specified, rather, according

to their relationship to consciousness.

3 Levels of Awareness
Conscious
Preconscious Unconscious

Conscious
Current contents of your mind that you actively think of
What we call working memory Easily accessed all the time

 Consciousness was by and large a subjective

phenomenon, the content of which could only be communicated by language or behavior. Freud regarded the conscious system as operating in close association with the preconscious.

Preconscious
Contents of the mind you are not currently aware of Thoughts, memories, knowledge, wishes, feelings Available for access when needed by focusing attention.

 The preconscious has been amplified by recent

findings in neuroscientific study of memory. An essential distinction is that between episodic memory and procedural memory. Episodic memory deals with past events in the individual's experience that are usually autobiographical or semantic in content. Other memories, however, have more to do with skills and habitual patterns of behavior

Unconscious
Contents kept out of conscious awareness
Not accessible at all

Processes that actively keep these thoughts from awareness

 THE DESCRIPTIVE UNCONSCIOUS: referred to all

those features of mental life of which people are not subjectively aware. THE DYNAMIC UNCONSCIOUS: a more specific construct , referred to mental processes and contents which are defensively removed from consciousness as a result of conflicting attitudes. THE SYSTEM UNCONSIOUS: denoted the idea that when mental process are repressed, they become organized by principles different from those of the conscious mind, such as condensation and displacement.

 Memories in the unconscious have been divorced from

their connection with verbal symbols. The content of the unconscious was limited to wishes seeking fulfillment. The unconscious was closely related to the instincts.

INSTINCTUAL THEORY
Freud postulated that all human beings have similar

instincts or drives. The actual discharge of instinctual impulses is organized, directed, regulated, or even repressed by functions of the individual ego, mediating between the organism and the external world. Characteristics of the Instincts Freud ascribed to instinctual drives four principal characteristics:
Source impetus aim object

 CONCEPT OF LIBIDO:
Freud regarded the sexual instinct as a

psychophysiological process that had both mental and physiological manifestations. Freud recognized early that the sexual instinct did not originate in a finished or final form, as represented by the stage of genital primacy. it underwent a complex process of development at each phase of which the libido had specific aims and objects that diverged in varying degrees from the simple aim of genital union.

 Infant Sexuality
Freud had become convinced of the relationship

between sexual trauma, in both childhood traumata and the genesis of psychoneurosis, and disturbances of sexual functioning in the so-called actual neurosesthat is, hypochondriasis, neurasthenia, and anxiety neuroses. anxiety neurosis to be due to inadequate discharge of sexual products, leading to the damming up of libido that was then converted into anxiety. neurasthenia to excessive masturbation and a diminution in available libidinal energy.

Aggression and Ego Instincts

The aggressive drives held a peculiar place in Freud's

theory. By 1915 Freud had arrived at a dualistic conception of the instincts as divided into sexual instincts and ego instincts Increasingly, Freud saw the sadistic component as independent of the libidinal and gradually segregated it from the libidinal drives.

 Freud gave aggression a separate status as an instinct

with a separate source, which he postulated to be largely the skeletomuscular system, and a separate aim of its own, namely, destruction. Aggression was no longer a component instinct, nor was it a characteristic of the ego instincts; it was an independently functioning instinctual system with aims of its own.

 It should be noted that aggression remains a problem

for psychoanalytic thinking even today. Although a great deal has been learned about the operation and vicissitudes of aggression since Freud originally struggled with it, there is still a great deal that remains to be learned about its nature, its origins, the conditions that produce and unleash it

Life and Death Instincts

The introduction of the life and death instincts must

be seen in the course of this development and as extending the inherent duality of instinctual theory to the level of ultimate and final biological principles. Freud postulated that the death instinct was a tendency of all organisms and their component cells to return to a state of total quiescencethat is, to an inanimate state- THANATOS

 In opposition to this instinct he set the life instinct, or

eros, referring to tendencies of organic particles to reunite, of parts to bind to one another to form greater unities, as in sexual reproduction.

Narcissism and the Dual Instinct Theory

The concept of narcissism holds a pivotal position in

the development of psychoanalytic theory. Freud observed that in cases of dementia praecox (schizophrenia), libido appeared to have been withdrawn from other persons and objects and turned inward. He concluded that this detachment of libido from external objects might account for the loss of reality contact so typical of these patients.

 Freud also became aware at the same time that

narcissism was not limited to these psychotic manifestations. It might also occur in neurotic and, to a certain extent, even in normal individuals under certain conditions. He noted, for example, that in states of physical illness and hypochondriasis, libidinal cathexis was frequently withdrawn from outside objects and from external activities and interests.

 Similarly, he speculated that in sleep libido was

withdrawn from outside objects and reinvested in the person's own body. A love object might be chosen, as Freud put it, according to the narcissistic type, that is, because the object resembles the subject's idealized self-image (or fantasied self-image).

The Structure of Psychic Apparatus

ID

EGO

SUPEREGO

ID
Freud conceived of the id as a completely unorganized,

primordial reservoir of energy, derived from the instincts and under the domination of the pleasure principle and primary process. not, however, synonymous with the unconscious, because certain functions of the ego, specifically certain defenses against unconscious instinctual pressures, were also unconscious; for the most part the superego also operated on an unconscious level.

EGO
ego is defined as a coherent system of functions for

mediating between instincts and the outside world. ego controls the apparatuses of motility and perception, contact with reality, and, through mechanisms of defense, inhibition, and control of primary instinctual drives. Freud believed that the ego developed out of modifications of the id, and that this occurred as a result of the impact of the external world on the drives.

 At first this conflict is between the id and the outside

world, but later it is between the id and the ego itself. Forms of internalizationincorporation, introjection, and identificationare variously connected with development of the ego.

The Superego
It is concerned with moral behavior based on unconscious

behavioral patterns learned at early pregenital stages of development. Frequently, in Freud's view, superego functions become involved in neurotic conflict by imposing demands in the form of conscience or guilt feelings. Occasionally, however, the superego may be allied with id functions against the ego. This happens in cases of severely regressed reaction, where functions of the superego may become sexualized once more or may become permeated by aggression, taking on a quality of primitive (usually anal) destructiveness.

Functions of The EGO

Control and Regulation of Instinctual Drives
Relation to Reality Sense of Reality

Reality Testing
Adaptation to Reality Object Relationships Defensive Functions of the Ego

EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS

Repression Pushing high anxiety-inducing thoughts out of consciousness, keeping them unconscious; this is the most basic of the defense mechanisms Offering seemingly logical self-justifying explanations for attributes, beliefs, or behavior in place of the real unconscious reasons Preventing unacceptable feelings or ideas from being directly expressed by expressing opposing feelings or ideas Discharging sexual or aggressive urges toward objects that are more acceptable than those that initially created the arousal Rationalization

Reaction formation
Displacement

Projection

Perceiving ones own sexual or aggressive urges not in oneself but in others
Psychologically retreating to an earlier developmental stage where psychic energy remains fixated

Regression

FREUDS STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage Oral Approximate Age 0-1 Erogenous Zone Mouth (sucking, biting) Anus (defecating) Genitals (masturbating) Key Tasks and Experiences Weaning (from breast or bottle) Toilet training

Anal

2-3

Phallic

4-5

Latency

6-11

None (sexual desires repressed)

Genitals (being sexually intimate)

Coping with Oedipal/Electra conflict and identifying with samesex parent Developing same-sex contacts Establishing mature sexual relationships

Genital

Puberty onward

The oral stage

Starts from birth until 18 months
The focus of pleasure is the mouth. i.e.: Sucking and teething

When the child is being nursed it gives him the psychological pleasure of being cared for, mothered and held.
Later they are likely to retain a life long desire to bite things, such as: chewing on the ends of pencils or pens, gum and biting nails.

The anal stage

Begins at 18 months
The childs natural focus of pleasure is the anus and

bodily functions. When the child begins to toilet training. This stage lasts between one and two years of age.

The Phallic Stage

This stage lasts from three and seven years of age.
The focus of pleasure is the genitalia, masturbation is

also common during this period.

The Latency Stage

This stage lasts between five and seven years old until

around puberty. During this stage their earlier focus is repressed. School, athletics, and same sex friendships is the main focus.

The genital Stage

This stage begins at puberty and continues through

their adolescence. Their energy is once again back to being focused on the genitals mainly the focus of pleasure is in sexual intercourse.

The Oedipus Complex

In the normal course of development, the so-called

pregenital phases were regarded as primarily autoerotic. The phallic period is also a critical phase for the consolidation of the child's own sense of gender identityas decisively male or femalebased in part on the child's discovery and realization of the significance of anatomical sexual differences

 Freud used the term Oedipus complex to refer to the

intense love relationships, together with their associated rivalries, hostilities, and emerging identifications, formed during this period between child and parents.

Castration Complex
Under normal circumstances, he felt, for boys the oedipal

situation was resolved by the castration complex. Specifically, the boy had to give up his strivings for his mother because of the threat of castration, resulting in castration anxiety. the Oedipus complex in girls was evoked by castration anxiety, but unlike the boy, the little girl had already been castrated and had to seek compensation for her loss by turning to her father as bearer of the penis, out of a sense of disappointment over her own lack of a penis.