Physics 120B: Lecture 3

Motors: Servo; DC; Stepper Messing with PWM (and 2-way serial) The Motor Shield

Three Types (for us)

Servo motor
PWM sets position, used for R/C planes, cars, etc. 5 V supply

Stepper motor
For precise angular control or speed control Can rotate indefinitely Lots of holding torque

DC motor
simplest technology; give up on precise control

Lecture 3

When any old PWM wont do

The function analogWrite() gives you easy control over the duty cycle of PWM output
but no control at all over frequency

Consider the Hitec servo motors well be using:

Wants a 50 Hz pulse rate, and a duty cycle from 4.5% to 10.5% (11/255 to 27/255) to drive full range
Lecture 3 3

What frequency is Arduino PWM?

Depends on which output is used Pins 5 and 6: default ~977 Hz
16 MHz clock rate divided by 214 = 16384

Pins 3, 9, 10, 11: default 488 Hz

16 MHz / 215

Neither is at all like the 50 Hz we need for the servo motor

Lecture 3

What choice do we have?

We can change the clock divider on any of three counters internal to the ATMega328
timer/counter 0, 1, and 2 consider this snippet from the register map: note in particular the lowest 3 bits in TCCR2B setting these according to the following rubric scales speed

Lecture 3

Valid Divider Options

PWM pins 5, 6 Register TCCR0B scaler values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 frequencies (Hz) 62500, 7812, 977, 244, 61.0

9, 10 3, 11

TCCR1B TCCR2B

1, 2, 3, 4, 5 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

31250, 3906, 488, 122, 30.5 31250, 3906, 977, 488, 244, 122, 30.5

Defaults are shown in red Obviously, choices are limited, and we cant precisely hit our 50 Hz target Closest is to use timer 0 with divider option 5 (61 Hz) 0.9 to 2.1 ms pulses correspond to 14/255 to 33/255 only 20 possible steps by this scheme
Lecture 3 6

How to set divider and change PWM freq.

Its actually not that hard
can do in setup or in main loop
TCCR0B = TCCR0B & 0b11111000 | 0x05;

Broken Down:
modifying TCCR0B associated with pins 5 & 6 & is bitwise AND operator 0b11111000 is binary mask, saying keep first five as-is while zeroing final three bits (because 0 AND anything is 0) | is bitwise OR operator, effectively combining two pieces 0x05 is hex for 5, which will select 61.0 Hz on Timer0 if TCCR0B started as vwxyzabc, it ends up as vwxyz101
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Code to interactively explore PWM frequencies

Will use serial communications in both directions
const int LED = 5; // or any PWM pin (3,5,6,9,10,11) char ch; // holds character for serial command

void setup() { pinMode(LED,OUTPUT); Serial.begin(9600); }

// need to config for output

to be continued

Lecture 3

void loop() { analogWrite(LED,128); // 50% makes freq. meas. easier if (Serial.available()){ // check if incoming (to chip) ch = Serial.read(); // read single character if (ch >=0 && ch <=7){ // valid range if (LED == 3 || LED == 11){ // will use timer2 TCCR2B = TCCR2B & 0b11111000 | int(ch - 0); Serial.print(Switching pin ); Serial.print(LED); Serial.print( to setting ); Serial.println(ch); } } if (ch >=0 && ch <=5){ // valid for other timers if (LED == 5 || LED == 6){ // will use timer0 TCCR0B = TCCR0B & 0b11111000 | int(ch 0); Serial.print(same stuff as before); } if (LED == 9 || LED == 10){ // uses timer1 TCCR1B etc. }}}} // would indent more cleanly if space
Lecture 3 9

Continued

Using the interactive program

Use serial monitor (Tools: Serial Monitor)
make sure baud rate in lower right is same as in setup() can send characters too in this case, type single digit and return (or press send) get back message like:
Switching pin 11 to setting 6

and should see frequency change accordingly

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Rigging a Servo to sort-of work

Original motivation was getting a 50 Hz servo to work
const int SERVO = 5; char ch; // for interactive serial control int level = 23; // 23 is 1.5 ms; 14 is 0.9; 33 is 2.1 void setup() { pinMode(SERVO, OUTPUT); // set servo pin for output Serial.begin(9600); TCCR0B = TCCR0B & 0b11111000 | 0x05; // for 61 Hz analogWrite(SERVO, level); // start centered }

continued next slide

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Continuation: main loop

void loop() { if (Serial.available()){ // check if incoming serial data ch = Serial.read(); // read single character if (ch >=0 && ch <=9){ // use 10 step range for demo level = map(ch-0,0,9,14,33); // map 0-9 onto 14-33 analogWrite(SERVO, level); // send to servo Serial.print(Setting servo level to: ); Serial.println(level); } } delay(20); // interactive program, so slow }

Being lazy and only accepting single-character commands, limited to ten values, mapping onto 20
the map() function is useful here the ch - 0 does ASCII subtraction
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A better (and easier!) way

The previous approach was a poor fit
poor match to frequency, and not much resolution

Arduino has a library specifically for this: Servo.h Various libraries come with the Arduino distribution
in /Applications/Arduino.app/Contents/Resources/Java/librar EEPROM/ ies Firmata/ SD/ Servo/ Stepper/ on my Mac
Ethernet/ LiquidCrystal/ SPI/ SoftwareSerial/ Wire/

Handles stepper and servo motors, LCDs, memory storage in either EEPROM (on-board) or SD card; several common communication protocols (ethernetfor use with shield, SPI, 2-wire, and emulated serial) can look at code as much as you want
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Example using Servo library

Watch how easy: one degree resolution
// servo_test . . . . slew servo back and forth thru 180 deg #include <Servo.h> Servo hitec; int deg; // instantiate a servo // where is servo (in degrees)

void setup(){ hitec.attach(9,620,2280); // servo physically hooked to pin 9 // 620, 2280 are min, max pulse duration in microseconds // default is 544, 2400; here tuned to give 0 deg and 180 deg } void loop(){ for(deg = 0; deg <= 180; deg++){ // visit full range hitec.write(deg); // send servo to deg delay(20); } for(deg = 180; deg >= 0; deg--){ // return trip hitec.write(deg); // send servo to deg delay(20); } } Lecture 3

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Available Servo Methods

attach(pin)
Attaches a servo motor to an i/o pin.

attach(pin, min, max)

Attaches to a pin setting min and max values in microseconds; default min is 544, max is 2400

write(deg)
Sets the servo angle in degrees. (invalid angle that is valid as pulse in microseconds is treated as microseconds)

writeMicroseconds(us)
Sets the servo pulse width in microseconds (gives very high resolution)

read()
Gets the last written servo pulse width as an angle between 0 and 180.

readMicroseconds()
Gets the last written servo pulse width in microseconds

attached()
Returns true if there is a servo attached.

detach()
Stops an attached servo from pulsing its i/o pin.
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Libraries: Documentation
Learn how to use standard libraries at:
http://arduino.cc/en/Reference/Libraries

But also a number of contributed libraries Upside: work and deep understanding already done Downside: will you learn anything by picking up premade sophisticated pieces?

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DC Motor
Coil to produce magnetic field, on rotating shaft Permanent magnet or fixed electromagnet Commutator to switch polarity of rotating magnet as it revolves
the carrot is always out front (and will also get push from behind if switchover timed right)

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DC Torque-speed Curve
See http://lancet.mit.edu/motors/motors3.html

Stalls at ts; no load at wn Power is tw; area of rectangle touching curve

max power is Pmax = tswn
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Electrical Expectations
Winding has resistance, R, typically in the 10 W range If provided a constant voltage, V
winding eats power Pw = V2/R motor delivers Pm = tw current required is Itot = (Pw + Pm)/V

At max power output (Pm = tswn)

turns out winding loss is comparable, for 50% efficiency

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Example 2.4 V motor

Random online spec for 2.4 V motor (beware flipped axes)

note at power max 0.0008 Nm; 0.7 A; 8000 RPM (837 rad/s)
total consumption 2.40.7 = 1.68 W motor power 0.0008837 = 0.67 W; efficiency 40% at constant V = 2.4, total power consumption rises 3 W toward stall 1.25 A at stall implies winding R = V/I = 1.9 W
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Another random example

Note provision of stall torque and no-load speed

suggests max output power of 2p(5500)/600.0183 = 2.6 W about half this at max efficiency point 2p(4840)/600.00248 = 1.25 W at max efficiency, 0.1712 = 2.04 W, suggesting 61% eff. implied coil resistance 12/1.06 11 W (judged at stall)

Lesson: for DC motors, electrical current depends on loading condition

current is maximum when motor straining against stall
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Servo Internals
A Servo motor is just a seriously gear-reduced DC motor with a feedback mechanism (e.g, potentiometer) to shut it off when it is satisfied with its position
and drive motor faster or slower depending on how far off target
potentiometer

gear reduction

DC motor
Lecture 3 22

Clever Steppers
Stepper motors work in baby steps In simplest version, there are two DC windings
typically arranged in numerous loops around casing depending on direction of current flow, field reversible

Rotor has permanent magnets periodically arranged

but a differing number from the external coils
teeth on rotor

8 dentures around outside

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A Carefully Choreographed Sequence

Four different combinations can be presented to the two coils (A & B; each bi-directional)
each combination attracts the rotor to a (usu. slightly) different position/phase stepping through these combinations in sequence walks the rotor by the hand to the next step

In practice, rotor has many poles around (in teeth, often), so each step is much finer.
Lecture 3 24

Toothed Animation
Note teeth are not phased with dentures all the way around
each is 90 from neighbor

This sequence is typical of centertap steppers

can activate one side of coil at a time

Note usually have more than four dentures around outside

Lecture 3 25

Stepping Schemes
Can go in full steps, half steps, or even microstep
full step is where one coil is on and has full attention of rotor if two adjacent coils are on, they split position of rotor so half stepping allows finer control, but higher current draw instead of coils being all on or all off, can apply differing currents (or PWM) to each
so can select a continuous range of positions between full steps

Obviously, controlling a stepper motor is more complicated than our other options
must manage states of coils, and step through sequence sensibly
Lecture 3 26

The Stepper Library

Part of the Arduino Standard Library set Available commands:
Stepper(steps, pin1, pin2) Stepper(steps, pin1, pin2, pin3, pin4) setSpeed(rpm) step(steps)

But Arduino cannot drive stepper directly

cant handle current need transistors to control current flow arrangement called H-bridge ideally suited

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Example stripped code

#include <Stepper.h> #define STEPS 100 // change for your stepper

Stepper stepper(STEPS, 8, 9, 10, 11); int previous = 0; void setup(){ stepper.setSpeed(30); } void loop(){ int val = analogRead(0);

// 30 RPM

// get the sensor value

// move a number of steps equal to the change in the // sensor reading stepper.step(val - previous); // remember the previous value of the sensor previous = val; }
Lecture 3 28

A Unipolar Stepper Motor: Center Tap

A unipolar stepper has a center tap for each coil

half of coil can be activated at a time can drive with two Arduino pins (left arrangement) or four pins (right) both use ULN2004 Darlington Array
Lecture 3 29

Whats in the Darlington Array?

The ULN2004 array provides buffers for each line to handle current demand Each channel is essentially a pair of transistors in a Darlington configuration
when input goes high, the output will be pulled down near ground which then presents motor with voltage drop across coil (COMMON is at the supply voltage)

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Unipolar hookup; control with four pins

Yellow motor leads are center tap, connected to external power supply (jack hanging off bottom)
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A Bipolar Stepper Motor: No Center Tap

In this case, the coil must see one side at ground while the other is at the supply voltage At left is 2-pin control; right is 4-pin control
H-bridge is L293D or equiv. transistors just make for logic inversion (1in opp. 2in, etc.)
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H-bridge Internals
An H-bridge is so-called because of the arrangement of transistors with a motor coil spanning across
two transistors (diagonally opposite) will conduct at a time, with the motor coil in between

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Bipolar Hookup; control with four pins

Input supply shown as jack hanging off bottom

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The Motor Shield

We have kit shields that can drive a motor party
2 servos plus 2 steppers 2 servos plus 4 DC motors 2 servos plus 2 DC motors plus 1 stepper

Allows external power supply: motors can take a lot of juice

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The Motor Shields Associated Library

See instructions at
http://www.ladyada.net/make/mshield/use.html

Install library linked from above site

follow instructions found at top of above page may need to make directory called libraries in the place where your Arduino sketches are stored
specified in Arduino preferences

and store in it the unpacked libraries as the directory AFMotor

Once installed, just include in your sketch:

#include <AFMotor.h>

Open included examples to get going quickly

Lecture 3 36

Example Code
Stepper Commands in AFMotor
#include <AFMotor.h> grab library

AF_Stepper my_stepper(# S/R, port); my_stepper is arbitrary name you want to call motor arguments are steps per revolution, which shield port (1 or 2) my_stepper.setSpeed(30); set RPM of motor for large moves (here 30 RPM)
my_stepper.step(NSTEPS, DIRECTION, STEP_TYPE); take NSTEPS steps, either FORWARD or BACKWARD can do SINGLE, DOUBLE, INTERLEAVE, MICROSTEP my_stepper.release(); turn off coils for free motion

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Step Types
SINGLE
one lead at a time energized, in sequence 3, 2, 4, 1
as counted downward on left port (port 1) on motor shield

normal step size

DOUBLE
two leads at a time are energized: 1/3, 3/2, 2/4, 4/1
splits position of previous steps; tug of war

normal step size, but twice the current, power, torque

INTERLEAVE
combines both above: 1/3, 3, 3/2, 2, 2/4, 4, 4/1, 1 steps are half-size, alternating between single current and double current (so 50% more power than SINGLE)

MICROSTEP
uses PWM to smoothly ramp from off to energized in principle can be used to go anywhere between hard steps
Lecture 3 38

DC Motors with motor shield/AFMotor

DC motors are handled with the following commands
#include <AFMotor.h> grab library

AF_DCMotor mymotor(port); port is 1, 2, 3, or 4 according to M1, M2, M3, M4 on shield mymotor.setSpeed(200); just a PWM value (0255) to moderate voltage sent to motor not RPM, not load-independent, etc. crude control
mymotor.run(DIRECTION); FORWARD, BACKWARD, or RELEASE depends, of course, on hookup direction

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Servos on the Shield

Two Servo hookups are provided on the shield Really just power, ground, and signal control
signal control is Arduino pins 9 and 10 use Servo.h standard library pin 9 Servo2 on shield; pin 10 Servo1 on shield

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Announcements
TAs will hold office hours Friday 3-4, Monday 3-5
should be able to start today

Willing to have Wed. lab people hand in prev. weeks lab by start of Wed. lab period, at 2PM (Tue. lab people still on Tue.)
can drop in slot on TA room in back of MHA 3544 anytime

Planning on midterm to verify basic understanding of Arduino coding

blank paper, will tell you to make Arduino do some simple task (at the level of first week labs, without complex logic aspects)

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