VOLCANO

RENO HASBUR

NAZMI
AIMAN

1. WHAT IS VOLCANO?

A volcano is a vent or 'chimney' that connects molten rock (magma) to the Earth's surface. It includes the surrounding cone of built-up material. Magma erupting from a volcano is called lava. Gases and pieces of rock erupt from volcanoes too. A volcano is active if it erupts lava, releases gas or shows seismic activity. It is dormant if it hasn't erupted for a long time but could again one day. An extinct volcano will never erupt again. The explosiveness of a volcanic eruption depends on how easily magma can flow and the amount of gas trapped in it. Large amounts of water and carbon dioxide are dissolved in magma. They behave like gas in fizzy drinks. After opening the bottle the gas expands, forming bubbles that escape. This also happens when magma rises quickly through the crust - gas bubbles form and expand up to 1000 times their original size.

2. LIST DOWN TYPES OF ERUPTION. DESCRIBE EACH TYPES USING DIAGRAMS.

The most common type of volcanic eruption occurs when magma (the term for lava when it is below the Earth's surface) is released from a volcanic vent. Eruptions can be effusive, where lava flows like a thick, sticky liquid, or explosive, where fragmented lava explodes out of a vent. In explosive eruptions, the fragmented rock may be accompanied by ash and gases; in effusive eruptions, degassing is common but ash is usually not.

Volcanologists classify eruptions into several different types. Some are named for particular volcanoes where the type of eruption is common; others concern the resulting shape of the eruptive products or the place where the eruptions occu

 Distinct bursts of fluid lava (usually basalt or basaltic andesite) from

the mouth of a magma-filled summit conduit. The explosions usually occur every few minutes at regular or irregular intervals. The explosions of lava, which can reach heights of hundreds of meters, are caused by the bursting of large bubbles of gas, which travel upward in the magma-filled conduit until they reach the open air.

This kind of eruption can create a variety of forms of eruptive

products: spatter, or hardened globs of glassy lava; scoria, which are hardened chunks of bubbly lava; lava bombs, or chunks of lava a few cm to a few m in size; ash; and small lava flows (which form when hot spatter melts together and flows downslope). Products of an explosive eruption are often collectively called tephra.

A Vulcanian eruption is a short, violent, relatively small explosion of viscous magma (usually andesite, dacite, or rhyolite). This type of eruption results from the fragmentation and explosion of a plug of lava in a volcanic conduit, or from the rupture of a lava dome (viscous lava that piles up over a vent). Vulcanian eruptions create powerful explosions in which material can travel faster than 350 meters per second (800 mph) and rise several kilometers into the air. They produce tephra, ash clouds, and pyroclastic density currents (clouds of hot ash, gas and rock that flow almost like fluids).

Vulcanian eruptions may be repetitive and go on for days, months, or years, or they may precede even larger explosive eruptions. They are named for the Italian island of Vulcano, where a small volcano that experienced this type of explosive eruption was thought to be the vent above the forge of the Roman smith god Vulcan.

3. WHEN DOES A VOLCANIC ERUPTION OCCUR?

Volcanoes occur because the Earth's crust is broken into plates that
resemble a jigsaw puzzle. There are 16 major plates. These rigid plates float on a softer layer of rock in the Earth's mantle. As the plates move about they push together or pull apart. Most volcanoes occur near the edges of plates.

 When plates push together, one plate slides beneath the other. This is a
subduction zone. When the plunging plate gets deep enough inside the mantle, some of the rock on the overlying plate melts and forms magma that can move upward and erupt at the Earth's surface. At rift zones, plates are moving apart and magma comes to the surface and erupts. Some volcanoes occur in the middle of plates at areas called hotspots - places where magma melts through the plate and erupts.

4. USING CASE STUDY OF ONE LEDC (E.G KRAKATOA, INDONESIA) & ONE EXAMPLE FROM MEDC (MT ST HELEN):

(A) WHERE (VOLCANO) AND WHEN OCCUR

a volcanic island situated in the Sunda Strait between the islands of Java and Sumatra in Indonesia. The name is also used for the surrounding island group comprising the remnants of a much larger island of three volcanic peaks.

St Helen - It is the Juan de Fuca plate, Pacific and the North America plates. The Juan de Fuca plate went under the North American plate.

(B) NATURE OF VOLCANO (WHERE IT LIES/PLATES)

Indonesia - subduction of the Indo-Australian tectonic plate as it
moves northward towards mainland Asia.

St Helen -It is the Juan de Fuca plate, Pacific and the North America
plates. The Juan de Fuca plate went under the North American plate and is melted into material in the mantle. This is called a destructive plate margin.

(C) MAGNITUDE
The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa has been assigned a Volcanic
Explosivity Index or VEI of 6 which rates as "colossal.

St Helen - The Mount St. Helens explosion of 1980 had a VEI of 5.

(D) EFFECTS OF ERUPTION TO PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT

Indonesia (ledc) - obliterated in a cataclysmic 1883 eruption, unleashing huge
tsunamis (killing more than 36,000 people) and destroying over two-thirds of the island. The explosion is considered to be the loudest sound ever heard in modern history, with reports of it being heard up to 3,000 miles (4,800 km) from its point of origin.

U.s (medc) - The eruption killed 57 people, in the lateral blast, ashfall, and lahars.
The causes to death included asphyxiation, thermal injuries, and trauma. Four indirect death were caused by a cropduster hitting powerlines during the ashfall, a traffic accident during poor visibilty, and two heart attacks from shoveling ash.

The Cost of Volcanic Eruptions details the economic impacts of the eruption.

The Toutle River was flooded by melting snow and ice from the mountain. About 12 million board feet of stockpiled lumber were sweep in the river. Eight bridges were destroyed. 200 homes were destroyed or damaged. Debris dams were added to help control sediment in the rivers.

Thirty logging trucks, 22 transport vehicles, and 39 railcars were damaged or destroyed along with 4.7 billion board feet of timber.

Shipping was stopped on the Columbia River and some vessels were stranded. In eastern Washington, falling ash stranded 5,000 motorist. Ash had to be cleared from runways and highways.

5. DESCRIBE PRODUCTS OF VOLCANIC HAZARDS, FOR EXAMPLE PYROCLASTIC FLOW ETC.

The principal products of volcanic eruptions may be grouped into
several broad categories according to the type of material ejected and its mode of transport from the vents to its place of deposition : ash, falls, pyroclastic flows, lava flow and gas emission. Several other hazardous phenomena are directly associated with eruption. There are ground fracture, ground subsidence, debris avalanche, lahars, glacier bursts, volcanic earthquakes and tsunamis.

 1 - Lava flows are less dangerous to human life than to property, traffic,
and communication because probable path, of lava flows can be roughly predicted, diversion measures, cool advancing front with water, or disruption of source or advancing front of lava flow by explosives may be taken in principle: however, such measures, often turn out to not be very successful. Highly viscous lava generallly does not advance far, but commonly piles, up above an active vent as a lava dome. Such domes can collapse repeatedly and generate dangerous hot block and ash flows and hot surges and blasts. Kilauea lava flows.( V.Clavel):

 2 -Poisonous, even lethal, gases can be ejected during the eruption of a

volcano or can be released without a triggering eruption (e.g. Nyos). The gases are transported away from vent as acid aerosols, as compounds absorbed on tephra and as microscopic salt particles. Sulfur compounds, chlorine and fluorine react with water to form poisonous acids damaging to the eyes, skin and respiratory systems of animals even in small concentrations. Most volcanic gases are noxious and smell bad, but they can cause mass fatalities. The time available for early warning of gas release is extremely short, and intensified investigation on such gas eruption, as well as keen observation of the respective locations, are absolutely necessary. Gas Nyos effect (J.Lockwood):

 3 - Ashfalls during volcanic eruption generally do not directly endanger life,

although the collapse of roof and houses under the ash load are not uncommon. Considerable damage may be caused, however, for agriculture and industry even at distances up to tens of kilometers from a vent. Many of the hazards of tephra falls can be mitigated with proper planning and preparation. This includes clearing tephra from roofs as it accumulates, designing roofs with steep slopes, strengthening roofs and walls, designing filters for machinery, wearing respirators or wet clothes over the mouth and nose. Cinder emission at Fogo (H.Gaudru):

 4 - Pyroclastic flows and low-density surges that are frequently associated

with blast are extremely hazardous types of volcanic eruptions. Pyroclastic flows consist of a mixture of volcanic gases and ash and are generated during many volcanic eruptions. Some may be as hot as 900C ; they move swiftly with velocities of up to several 100 m/s. Early warning for this volcanic phenomenon is virtually impossible. A most dangerous situation develops if pyroclastic flows are generated on snow or glacier covered volcanoes, causing the cover to melt. The only effective method of risk mitigation is evacuation prior to such eruption from areas likely to be affected by pyroclastic flows. Pyroclastic flows -Soufriere of Montserrat (H.Gaudru ):

 5 - Lahars ( volcanic mud and debris flows) are a common major volcanic
hazard for people and property. Lahars likewise proceed very quickly and possess great destructive power. They develop either as a direct consequence of a volcanic eruption, if , for instance, crater lake are blown out, or as a secondary event as a result of heavy rainfall during or after the eruption. Areas farther away may be warned several hours in advance. A sufficient monitoring of individual volcanoes, however, rarely is guaranteed. Small lahars can be diverted by barriers or by artificial channels which lead them away from valuable land or property, but in most cases the volume and force of the lahar is such that it beyond human power to control. Lahars of Pinatubo - Philippines- (Y. Miller)

 6 -Volcanic debris avalanches generated by sliding of larger portions of

volcanic cones are common. These avalanches are highly mobile and may not only bury large tracts of land and dam stream to form lakes than can drain catastrophically and generate lahars and floods but also cause devastating tidal waves ( tsunamis) if they advance into lakes or the sea. The only effective method of risk mitigation is evacuation prior to such debris avalanche or tsunamis ( if expecting) from areas likely to be affected by this kind of phenomena. Api Siau Island (V. Clavel)

Damage and hazard to human life, social structure, and property may not be induced only by direct effects of volcanic eruptions. Some of the most dangerous secondary phenomena are tsunamis, contaminated (e.g., fluorine-rich) ashes, or long-Iasting aerosol clouds that can orbit the Earth for years after large volcanic eruptions. Aerosol clouds basically consist of condensed volcanic gases, mainly sulfuric acid. The emission of large quantities of SO2 and also possibly halogens into the stratosphere may lead to a temperature decrease on the Earth's surface by increasing the global albedo and also can contribute significantly to the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer. The correlation between volcanic hazards, destructive potential, and the erupted mass is not universal. In many cases, the destructive potential depends less on the mass and temperature of the erupted material than it does on the specific environment of the eruptive center, especcially the degree of magma-water interaction and the energy of the initial blasts.

 SUPERVOLCANO
SUPERVOLCANOES IS THE VOLCANOES THAT HAVE REACHED A VEI OF 8 RATED AS APOCALYPTIC WITH PLUME OF 50KM. EG: YELLOWSTONE