Ethical Theory

The Trolley Problem

The Trolley Problem: take 2

The Transplant Surgeon

Consequentialism & Deontology

Consequentialism rightness depends on consequences

Deontology rightness depends at least in part on a formal moral rule or principle

$180 billion government bailout A few months later... $165 million in bonuses to 400 executives

Relativism
What I feel is right is right. What I feel is wrong is wrong. Jean Jacques Rousseau

Ethical Subjectivism - There are no objective moral truths only an individuals feelings or preferences.

Some Criticism:
No arbitration between views possible, other than the exercise of power.

Anyone can harm others if it feels right to them

And we do tend to think that arbitration is possible we do it all the time. And that its wrong to harm others for such a reason.

Relativism

Cultural Relativism - All (not some) moral values are nothing more than cultural customs and laws.

Some Criticism:
Guilty of deriving ought from is (the Naturalist Fallacy). Offers no criteria for distinguishing between reformers and criminals Cant explain moral progress Encourages blind conformity to cultural norms, rather than rational analysis of moral issues (which we think is important) Doesnt work in pluralistic cultures (like ours)

Can lead to suspicion and mistrust of other cultures

Following the law is not the same thing as acting morally

Laws can be immoral Laws can provide insufficient direction Laws can be ambiguous

Doing the moral minimum is doing what you are morally obligated to do (not doing bad) Doing good: going beyond your obligations

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Moral Development & Maturity

Postconventional thinking does not need to reject cultural norms, but rather to evaluate them. If it accepts them, its because they are the right norms to have not because they are the norms we do have,
The more you think about your choices, the more you think about your reasons and the reasons of others, the more you open your mind and widen your horizons, the more your moral reasoning is likely to mature!

Kohlbergs stages of moral development

Ethical Egoism - everyone ought to do what is in his or her own rational self-interest
The achievement of his own happiness is mans highest moral purpose Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness (1964)

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Some Criticism:

Justifies any self-interested action no matter how it effects others.

Selfishness is usually associated with immorality, altruism with morality

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Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham (1748 1831) The morally right act for an agent A at a time t is that act available to A at t, that will maximize the total amount of good in the world (that will have the best consequences).

The greatest good for the greatest number

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Hedonistic Utilitarianism
What is good?

Pleasure and the absence of pain are good Pleasure is any sensation you would rather have than no sensation at all; and pain is any sensation youd rather not have than no sensation at all.

What Bentham thinks are the advantages of Utilitarianism

Neutralistic treats everyone in the same way
Realistic its based on real psychology. It works with people as it finds them and organizes society so that they being that way actually has good consequences for everyone. Non-metaphysical it doesn't make goodness/badness right/wrongness some sort of weird qualities. What in the world is a natural right? Non-elitist it counts all sentient creatures. And all types of pleasures equally Determinate in principle in principle, you can use the hedonic calculus to get an actual answer to the question of what should I do in this case?.

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The Hedonic Calculus

For each action-alternative: Determine Intensity x duration Determine Probability Calculate Total = (intensity x duration) x Probability Perform the action-alternative with the highest total

How do we regard different types of pleasures?

What counts as pleasure?
What about sadistic and masochistic pleasures?

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Bentham: the source of pleasure doesnt matter

Are there higher and lower pleasures?

Bentham: Its a subjective criterion Pushpin is as good as poetry

J.S. Mill: There is an objective quality to different pleasures that should also be factor into our calculations
Quality comes from what people would choose if they had access to all possible pleasures

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Are all goods commensurable?

Can all pleasures be roughly compared? Can they be reduced to some sort of homogenous value?

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Utilitarianism & business

Market view Free and unregulated markets would maximize the overall good by most efficiently connecting supply with demand.
Administrative view Policy experts manipulate the economy to attempt to improve the outcome beyond the capacities of a purely free market.

Criticisms of Utilitarianism
Its too difficult to apply

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People care about more than just pleasure

We can not reduce all human goods into quantifiable units which can be aggregated and compared There is no non-arbitrary limit to how far into the future we should consider consequences Intention is important for determining the moral status of actions, but no room for this in utilitarianism Justifies acts that seem to be plainly wrong like murder and rape

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Other forms of Utilitarianism

Rule Utilitarianism - Always act according to the rule that would produce the most utility in the world (vs. act utilitarianism)

Preference Utilitarianism: Always act so as to maximize satisfaction of peoples preferences (vs. Hedonistic Utilitarianism)

Rights and duties

One way to think of a right is as a trump against the claims of the general welfare. Rights hook into correlative duties: if you have a right not to be killed, then I have a duty not to kill you. Negative rights are rights to non-interference
A right not to be killed, have your property stolen, raped, etc.

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Positive rights are rights to aid entitlements to be provided with something

Right to due process of law in the US, to free education, to healthcare coverage, etc.

Kantianism
Moral actions follow from the right moral principles How do we know if our moral principles are good ones? Hypothetical imperatives are conditional, rather than categorical/absolute All moral rules must rest on a categorical imperative (CI)

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To find out whether a moral principle is ok to act from, you see if its compatible with the Categorical Imperative (CI)

The Categorical Imperative

2nd formulation of Categorical Imperative: Never treat a person merely as a means to an end, but always treat them as an end in themselves 1st formulation of Categorical Imperative: "Act only according to that maxim that you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. (a rule that applies to everybody)
Step 1: Formulate a sincere and rational maxim (a subjective principle of action that states what you propose to do, and why) Step 2: Universalize the maxim to everyone, past, present and future. (everyone, as if by a law of nature, does A in C in order to achieve E)

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The Categorical Imperative

Step 3: Imagine the world that would result from conjoining all the laws of physics, psychology, sociology, etc. with the law you made in Step 2

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Step 4: Test the maxim

The contradiction in conception test In the social world of (3) would it be possible to achieve your end by means of the action you proposed in 1?
The Contradiction in the Will test - Could I consistently will that this social world actually exist? If a maxim of action fails the CI tests, it is NOT permissible to act on that maxim! AND that means that not to do that thing is a moral duty.

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Criticisms of Kantianism
Its absolutist and inflexible (What if the negative consequences are too high?) Some maxims which seem to be ok, fail the CI test. (e.g. Go to the beach on a sunny day) We have no positive formula for constructing maxims, so it seems we may propose any number of maxims for any action. Which should we follow? The whole approach of basing morality on rationality, rather than feelings is mistaken.

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Some major moral principles

The Principle of Nonmaleficence We ought to act in ways that do not cause needless harm or injury to others The Principle of Beneficence We should act in ways that promote the welfare of other people The Principle of Utility We should act in such a way as to bring about the greatest benefit and the least harm

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Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethic focuses on having a good character tells you what kind of person you ought to be It is action-guiding in the sense that it recommends that you become the kind of person that will do what is right perhaps instinctively

How do you become virtuous?

Develop the sort of habits or instincts that a virtuous person has through good upbringing, education, reflection, experience, and effort What habits or instincts are these? Those that your moral exemplars poses

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Virtue Ethics the virtues

Moral Virtues
Benevolence, compassion, honesty, charity, sincerity, sympathy, respect consideration, kindness, thoughtfulness, loyalty, fairness, etc.

Practical/non-moral virtues
Rationality, intelligence, tenacity, capability, patience, prudence, skillfulness, shrewdness, proficiency, etc.

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Criticisms of Virtue Ethics

(1) Different cultural groups have had different, sometimes conflicting, opinions on what constitutes a virtue. If Virtue Ethics has no universal basis, it leads to an undesirable cultural relativism.

(2) Virtue Ethics may praise certain character traits, but this provides us with no or insufficient practical guidance about which specific actions to perform

Using Child labor

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