Economical constraint Less power Long lifetime Social constraint

High color rendering

 Health and safety constraints

No harmful excitation or materials

Sustainability constraint
Long maintenance periods

Environmental constraint

environmentally friendly
Less emission of carbon

 Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

Old technology (1970s)

Advanced from numeric displays and

indicator lights to new potential applications (e.g. exit signs, accent

lights, task lights, traffic lights, cove

lighting, outdoor lighting and down lighting)

Three layers of semiconductor on substrate

i. P-type (when forward bias holes come from it)
ii. N-type (when forward bias electrons come from it) iii. Active region (emits light when e + hole)

The forward-bias and the reverse-bias properties of the pn

junction imply that it can be used as a diode. negative charges (electrons) can easily flow through the

junction from n to p but not from p to n, and vise versa for holes.
When the pn junction is forward-biased, electric charge flows freely due to reduced resistance of it

When the pn junction is reverse-biased, the junction barrier

the resistance becomes greater and charge flow is minimal.

 In an incandescent lamp, a tungsten filament is heated by electric current until it glows, emitting visible light. In a fluorescent lamp, an electric current causes the gas

inside the tube to emit ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which

strikes the phosphor coating on the inside of the glass, causing it to emit visible light.

When current is applied, the negatively-charged electrons move toward the positive side, and the positively-charged holes move toward the

negative side. At the junction, the electrons and holes combine. As this
occurs, energy is released in the form of light that is emitted by the LED.

Depending on the alloy used to make the semiconductor, the light emitted by the LED can range through the colors of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow,

green, and blue.

"White" light is created by combining the light from red, green, and blue (RGB) LEDs, or by coating a blue

LED with yellow phosphor.

 long lifetime:
More than 100,000 hours

Low power consumption:

80% >> light & 20% >> loss

Lower bill

More accurate color rendering:

Provide clear objects color

Security

 Energy efficiency:
80 90%

Efficient lighting equipment: Reflector & Refractor

Fewer electrical losses: Dont require additional electronic and electromagnetic components

 Instantaneous turn on and off: Low-Voltage: External solar energy source

Using remote
environmental friendly:

No harmful chemical ( e.g. mercury)

No filaments or toxic/combustible gases

lower CO2 emissions

 Low maintenance: Long life time

Operational in extremely cold or hot temperatures

operates well also in cold settings(-55 - 70C) Dimming LED: Control the amount of lighting

Reduce the power consumption

 Expensive: It made from an expensive material

Lenses:
It doesnt produce a glow in all direction Angle of radiation (40 70)